Unit 1 Part 1 Biological Bases of Behavior (Brain Edition)

Evolutionary Perspective

The study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success.

Natural Selection

The process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations.

Nature

"Genes" are the inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities.

Nurture

"Environment" the environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual's psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes.

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors.

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors.

Heredity

The transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring.

Heritability

In psychology helps us figure out how much of our traits come from our genes and how much comes from our environment.

Genetic Predisposition

The inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents.

Eugenics

The belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, perceiving, and decision-making.

Lobes of the Brain

The lobes of the brain refer to the four main regions or sections into which the cerebral cortex is divided.

Association Areas

They're parts of the brain that take information from all over the place—like what we see, hear, smell, and touch—and put it together to help us understand the world around us.

Frontal Lobes

Located at the front of the brain and are involved in higher-level cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and personality expression.

Prefrontal Cortex

A region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions and executive functioning.

Executive Functioning

a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively.

Motor Cortex

region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements of the body.

Parietal Lobes

located at the top of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.

Somatosensory Cortex

region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints.

Occipital Lobes

located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information received from the eyes.

Temporal Lobes

located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation.

Corpus Callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and information sharing between the two hemispheres.

Brainstem

the oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles.

Medulla

vital structure located at the base of the brainstem, regulating essential autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure.

Reticular Activating System

a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, and consciousness.

Cerebellum

located at the back of the brain, below the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture.

Limbic System

a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.

Reward Center

network of brain structures, primarily located in the limbic system, that processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them.

Thalamus

a relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory information, such as sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

a small but powerful structure located below the thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle.

Pituitary Gland

small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, often referred to as the 'master gland' due to its central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body.

Hippocampus

curved structure located within the brain's temporal lobes, primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories.

Amygdala

small, almond-shaped structure located deep within the brain's temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Threat Detection System

It plays a central role in the brain's threat detection system, triggering the body's fight-or-flight response in response to perceived danger.

Nervous System

The body's communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord. It serves as the command center of the body, responsible for processing information, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord. It serves as a communication network, transmitting sensory information from the body to the central nervous system (CNS).

Autonomic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions, operating automatically, without conscious control.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for activating the body's 'fight or flight' response in times of stress or danger. Increases heart rate, dilates airways, and redirects blood flow to essential organs, preparing the body to respond to perceived threats.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger. It slows heart rate, constricts airways, and enhances digestion, allowing the body to conserve energy and recover from stressors.

Somatic Nervous System

Division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory information from the body to the central nervous system.

Neurons

Specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body. It consists of three main parts: the cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon.

Glial Cells

The 'support cells' of the nervous system, providing structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons. They play essential roles in maintaining brain health and supporting neuronal function.

Motor Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to muscles, glands, and organs, initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary movements.

Sensory Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles, and organs, to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Interneurons

Nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons.

Reflex Arc

Neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflexes).

Homunculus Mapper

There is a map of your body surface on your brain's cortex. But the map isn't proportional to actual space. You can test the sensitivity of the body parts using two-point discrimination.

Neural Transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals.

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron. It is the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response.

Action Potential

brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron. It occurs when the neuron receives a stimulus that causes the inside of the cell to become more positively charged than the outside.

All-or-Nothing Principle

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength. If the stimulus is strong enough to trigger an action potential, the neuron will respond with a full-strength impulse. If the stimulus is below the threshold, the neuron will not fire an action potential at all.

Depolarization

phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions, such as sodium ions, through ion channels in the cell membrane.

Refractory Period

brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential. This period occurs because the neuron's sodium channels are temporarily inactivated and the cell membrane returns to its resting state.

Resting Potential

the stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals. It is maintained by the unequal distribution of ions, with more sodium ions outside the cell and more potassium ions inside.

Reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released.

Multiple Sclerosis

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. It occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective myelin sheath, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers, causing inflammation and damage.

Myasthenia Gravis

chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles. It occurs when the immune system produces antibodies that block or destroy the receptors for acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contraction.

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, allowing for communication within the nervous system. They are released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to specific receptor sites on postsynaptic neurons, initiating or inhibiting a neural impulse.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron. They bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane, causing depolarization and making the neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

Glutamate

the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, playing a key role in synaptic transmission and neuronal communication. It is involved in various brain functions, including learning, memory, and neural plasticity.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron.

GABA

a neurotransmitter that acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety.

Dopamine

neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement. Dopamine pathways in the brain are implicated in the experience of pleasure and reward, making it a key neurotransmitter in the brain's reward system.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters produced by the brain and central nervous system that act as natural pain relievers and mood enhancers.

Substance P

Neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals in the nervous system.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter that plays a fundamental role in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

Hormones

Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs.

Ghrelin

Hormone produced primarily by the stomach and small intestine that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger.

Leptin

Hormone produced primarily by fat cells that regulates energy balance and appetite.

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms in the body.

Oxytocin

Hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in social bonding.

Adrenaline

Hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's stress response.

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the body.

Plasticity

Refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes.

Split Brain Research

Studies individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure called corpus callosotomy, which disconnects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Epilepsy

A neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures, which can sometimes originate from abnormal electrical activity spreading between the two hemispheres of the brain.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

The phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

Hemispheric Specialization

Explored through split brain research, refers to the concept that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions and abilities.

Linguistic Processing

The complex cognitive processes involved in understanding and producing language.

Broca's Area

Located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the frontal lobe, that is responsible for speech production and language processing.

Broca's Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area in the left hemisphere of the brain, often resulting from stroke or brain injury.

Wernicke's Area

Region located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the temporal lobe, that is involved in language comprehension and understanding spoken and written language.

Wernicke's Aphasia

Language disorder caused by damage to Wernicke's area in the left hemisphere of the brain, typically resulting from stroke or brain injury.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Non-invasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the brain.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Neuroimaging technique used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen levels.

Lesioning

Research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals.