namen en termen precursors

Natalie Heinich

• Prominent French sociologist

• From asking “why” to asking “how”

• Heritage factory (la fabrique patrimoine)

• ‘over-patrimonialisation’

• Emphasizes the need to put human values and people at the centre of heritage

Dominique Poulot

• Leading historian of museums and heritage

  • Institutionalisation of culture and centralized tradition of heritage management in France

• Notion of heritage has 3 phases

  • Initial legal possession

  • Transition into tool for national identity

  • Contemporary status as a site of subjective emotional valutation

• Explored relationship between intangible heritage and museum studies

• Critiques ideological implications of heritage classification

Reinhart Koselleck

• Pivotal figure in conceptual history

• ‘Saddle period’ (1750-1850)

  • Transformation of vocab of social and political world

• ‘space of experience’

  • Past that is present

• ‘horizon of expectation’

  • Anticipated future

• Rapid acceleration of time brought by modernisation created big gap between past and present

• ‘renaturalisation’

  • Theory of ‘multiple times’

François Hartog

• ‘regimes of historicity’

  • How societies articulate relationship between past, present and future

• Shift towards ‘presentism’

  • Regime in which present becomes the dominant temporal horizon

    • No link to past or future

• Production of historical times has ‘stalled’

  • Inflation of heritage and memory

    • Distinguishes between ‘traditional monuments’ and ‘modern heritage’

1980: year of heritage

• Watershed event that expanded public and legal definitions of patrimoine

• Served to broaden semantic field of heritage outside of monuments

• Followed the French Direction du Patrimoine in 1978

• Using the past for creating an ‘imagined community’

• Heritage function as central political agenda point

• Property notion as a crucial element of modern heritage discourse

• Inspo for year of heritage 2009 → democratisation of heritage even more

Marcus Varro

• Ultimate antiquarian (116-27 BCE)

  • Foundational figure who invented term ‘antiquities’

• Work was central to transition of historical inquiry into systematic study of ‘facts’

• Prioritised study of inscriptions and specific details of Roman life, religion and law

• Distinguished between anitquarius (collected and classified physical remains) and historian (who wove them into a chronological story)

• During renaissance his approach was rediscovered as integral part of humanism

Arnaldo Momigliano

• 1908-1987, seminal historian

• Work defined theoretical boundary between history and antiquarianism

• Antiquary = type of man who is interested in historical facts without being interested in history

• Definiing trait of antiquarian = absence of chronology

• Historian = explanatory and linear timeline
  vs.
  Antiquarian = descriptive and systematic

• Antiquarians were the first to use material remains to reconstruct ancient life

• Text ‘The Classical Foundations of Modern Historiography’ → says to merge the 2 disciplines

Peter Miller

• Research modernised study of antiquarianism

  • Foundation of numerous scientific disciplines like archaeology

• Tentative morphology of European antiquarianism (1500-2000)

  • Description

  • Collection

  • Comparison

• Art of antiquarianism = reconstructing

  • Act of restoring or reassembling lost wholes (buildingds, rittuals or landscapes) through meticulous documentation

• Documentation allows scholars to undo the effects of time by re-contextualising material objects

Li Qingzhao

• Poet of the Song Dynasty (1084-1155)

• First woman antiquarian

• Wrote a poignant postscript of dead husband’s work ‘Records on Metal and Stone’

  • Documentation of shared collection of antiquities

• Works captures intense emotional passion and fever that drives a collector

  • Artefacts > personal beauty

• Chinese parallel to Varronian ideal of historical erudition

• Shifts antiquarianism from a purely European narrative

Jean-Jacques Chifflet

• Scholar-physician who served as personal dr of Isabella of Spain (1588-1673)

• 17th century ‘Republic of Letters’

• Utilised his professional status to build extensive networks of information

  • Even interviewing female informants

• 1655 publication ‘Anastasis Childerici’

  • First scientific excavation report

  • Attention for artefacts and systematic approach

Anastasis Childerici

• 1655 by Jean-Jacques Chifflet

• First truly scientific archaeological publication

• Discovery of tomb of Merovingian King Childeric I in Tournai

• Illustrations and descriptions of grave goods

  • Mention of Golden Bees

• Bees → significant political weight

  • Louis XIV avoided war with Austria unless he was sure he could steal them bees

• Report was viewed by Napoleon who adopted the bee as French Imperial symbol to replace the Fleur-de-Lis

Grand Tour

• Formatice rite of passage for young European aristocrats from early-modern through 18th century

• Education by exposing them to artistic, architectural and antiquarian treasures of Italy and France and later the wider continent

• Encourage collecting of ‘souvenirs’ for private collections

• Combo of scholarly observation and pleasure of travel

• Everyone made a travel journal with sketches and descriptions as proof

• Merging of early network of ‘correspondence’ by linking antiquarian knowledge to emerging republic of letters

  • Groundwork for later systematic collecting and museum formation

Gerhard Schøning (of Schoening)

• Norwegian antiquary and historian (1732-1780)

• 1771 publication on partly ruined medieval cathedral of Nidaros

  • = Shift from purely textual antiquarianism to the empirical study of architectural remains

• Combo of close observation of physical structure and systematic description of its decorative elements

  • 18th century move towards ‘field-based’ antiquarian research

• Monuments =/= illustrations of literary sources

• Monuments = independent objects capable of generating historical knowledge

• Documenting cathedral’s decay → pre-figured later heritage conservation debates from 19th century

Bastille ‘14/7’

• Assualt on Bastille on 14/07/1789
  = Iconic opening act of French Revolution

• Prison was stormed and governor Bernard-Rossignol was killed and few remaining prisoners were also freed and seized gunpowder

• Event was mythologised

  • Broken stones were collected, labelled and redistrubited as symbol of triumph

  • ‘mini-bastilles’

• Palloy’s demolition work turned ruins into commodity

  • Bastille’s image = relic of revolutionary legitimacy

Pierre-François Palloy

• Began dismantling the Bastille on the night of 14/01/07/1789

• Secured contract from National Constituent Assembly 2 days later

• Organised workforce of 800 men

• Completed demolition by July 1790

• Made a series of mini-models and medals from Bastille’s stone and metal

  • = Palloy’s Patriote souvenirs

Bien Nationaux

• Denotes properties from the Church and aristrocracy

• Properties were subsequently sold or repurposed for public use

• Expression of the new ‘national heritage’ regime

  • From private property to state owned resources

• Revolutionary government both financed their fiscal needs and symbolically transferred ownership of cultural patrimony

• = foreshadowing for later heritage-legislation

  • Property rights linked with collective memory

  • Idea of ‘Public heritage’

Debts in France in 1789

• Financial crisis preceded French Revolution

  • Massive state borrowing

• By 1788: 55% of French budget went to servicing interest on debt

  • ‘Rentes Viagères’ = Life-annuity bonds

• Solution of Revolutionary National Assembly

  • Creation of ‘Biens Nationaux’

• But sheer scale of debt was too much in combination of loss of confidence in government

Abbé Grégoire

• Revolutionary leader 1750-1831

• Invention of term ‘vandalism’

  • 1794 ‘Rapport sur le Vandalisme’

  • = Denounced destruction of aristrocratic and ecclesiastical symbols

  • ‘barbarians and slaves hate sciences and destroy monuments’

• Foundational figure in creation of state-led heritage conservation

• Radical advocate for abolition of slavery and unification of French language

Félix Vicq d’Azyr

• Physician 1748-1794

• Provided rational and administrative framework for revolutionary heritage management

• 1794: ‘Instruction sur la manière d’inventorier et de conserver’

  • Systematic manual designed to identify and safeguard all objects of value to arts, sciences and education across the Republic

• Shifting focus from antiquarian curiousity to state-led administrative conservation

• Heritage = ‘common good’

  • Requires profesiional inventorying

  • Needs protection against physical decay and politics

• Groundwork for modern ‘heritage factory’

Alexandre Lenoir

• French ‘foundation myth’ of heritage

• Credited with saving medieval monuments from iconoclastic violence

• Spearheaded institutional effort to salvage architectural fragments and sculptures

• 1795: ‘musée des monuments français’

  • Display of saved artefacts to tell the history of France

• Turning ‘unintended monuments’ into objects of historical study and admiration

• Turning point where destruction of the past was replaced by heroic narrative of preservation

Statue on Place des Victoires (Louis XIV)

• Removal of royal statues = defining act of revolutionary iconoclasm

  • Storming of the Tuileries on 10 August 1792

• Assembly justified destruction by declaring that the "sacred principles of liberty and equality" would no longer permit monuments to "pride, prejudice and tyranny" to remain before the people

• = "Year Zero" of heritage awareness,

  • Dismantling of symbols of the old regime = necessary step in invention of a new national history and an "imagined community"

• Destruction was often followed by recycling of materials (Bastille)

• Phase of "statuomanie"—or systematic removal of statues—highlighted shift in t"regime of historicity"

  • Old monuments were stripped of their authority to make room for modern civic virtues

Quatremère de Quincy

• Antoine Quatremère de Quincy 1755-1825

• Foundational critique of Napoleon’s art looting

  • 1796: Lettres à Miranda

  • ‘Theory of Context’

• Rome and Italy as ‘organic museum’

• Advocate of ‘in situ’ preservation

  • Historical value linked to site

• Later supported national collections of heritage to ‘safeguard’ heritage

Vivan Denon

• First director of the Louvre museum 1747-1825

• Key figure in institutionalisation of art as tool of imperial power

• Appointed by Napoleon after Egypt campaign (1798-1801)

• Oversaw transition into musée napoléon in 1803

• Aimed to make Paris a ‘new Athens or Rome’

• Pioneer of archaeology

• End reign Napoleon = give back some paintings and stuff he had collected

Chiara Mannoni

• Art historian

• Focus on intellectual and legal history of heritage

  • 18th century debates regarding displacement of art during Napoleonic era

• Highlights critical significance of 1796 protest movements → Quincy

• Supported open letter against the ‘spoliation’ of Italy

Astrid Swenson

• The Rise of Heritage: Preserving the Past in France, Germany and England 1789-1914

• Challenges traditional national ‘foundation myths’ by showing that these narratives are often inconsistent and politically motivated

• No one country is the real inventor of heritage

  • All part of ‘entangled’ global heritage

• Demonstrates heritage was not an isolated European phenomenon

• A lot different experts across multiple countries laid the groundwork for the prevention of destruction of culture

John Ruskin

• Theorist, 1819-1900

• The Seven Lamps of Architecture

  • Redefined moral and social purpose of heritage

  • Sacrifice, Truth, Power, Beauty, Life, Memory and Obedience

  • Architecture = gift from god

• Memory → allows architecture to honour the past while serving as a vehicle for social cohesion and moral instruction

• Heritage = tool for social change

• If you take proper care of your monuments, you do not need to restore them

  • Advocating for buildings to be treated with respect for their historical integrity instead of heavy restoration

Eugène Viollet-le-Duc

• Prominent figure of French Gothic Revival, 1814-1879

• Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française

  • theory of ‘reconstitution’

  • Bringing a building to a state of ‘completeness’ that it never reached previously

• Viewed restoration as a ‘technical an scientific discipline”

  • Stylistic restoration of medieval buildings

Olivia Hill

• Engeland, 1838-1912

• co founder of the National Trust 1895

• Advocated heritage of the people

• Focused on open spaces and everyday landscapes

• Linked heritage to social reform

• Access to nature improves wellbeing

The Lieber Code

• 1863

• General Orders No 100

• Authored by Francis Lieber

• American Civil War context

• Protection of art libraries monuments

• Precursor to Hague Convention 1954

International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation

• 1920s

• League of Nations iniative

• Promoted international scholarly exchange

• Coordinated cultural policy between nations

• Institutional precursors to UNESCO

• Early heritage cooperation

Ernest Renan

• 1832-1892

• Lecture ‘What is a Nation?’ in 1882

  • Nation as imagined community

• Shared memory concept = central to nationalism

• ‘Forgetting’ as political act

• Heritage narratives can change

Examples vs. Case Studies

• Jacques Revel developed with Jean Claude Passeron

• Exampe = illustrates general rule

  • Is transferable

• Case study = challenges theory

  • Generates new questions

Diana Taylor

• book ‘The Archive and the Repertoire’ 2003

• Archive texts, objects and documents

• Repetoire embodied performance

• Intangible heritage requires enactment

• Memory is a lived practice

Hubert Robert

• French painted 1733-1808

  • ‘Hubert des Ruines’

  • Made ruin paintings of existing buildings

• Louvre Commission member 1778

• Curator of royal collections 1784-1802

• Work ‘Pont au Change’

• Shaped museum display

Ruins in Medieval Renaissance Painting - Michel Makarius

• Ruins are present in navitiy scenes

  • Classical decay contrasts Chris

• Symbol of historical rupture

• Focus on renewal

• Temporal layering

Rudera Anne Eriksen

• Pre ruin terminology

  • Rubble, debris, rudera, …

• Examples from 1743 questionnaire

• No cultural value assigned to them

• Pre heritage perception

Ruines Encyclopédie

• 1765

• entry by Diderot and d’Alembert

• ruins = pictorial genre

  • limited to monumental buildings

• excludes ordinary houses

• linked to the concept of sublime

Ruins according to Tine Damsholt

• 18th century garden design

• Ruins provoke emotional response

• Authenticity judged by affect

  • Accuracy = secondary

• Techonology of the self

Iconographic Preservation - Françoise Choay

• pre 19th century practice

• preservation through engravings

• images replace conservation

  • fabric secondary

  • visual memory central

Hieronymus Cock

• 1518-1570

• Monimenta Ruinarum 1551

  • Documented roman antiquities

• early use of ruins term

• monuments shown in change

• visual archive

• democratisation of ‘grand tour’

age value

• Aloïs Riegl

• ‘Modern Cult of Monuments’ 1903

• Value based on visible aging

  • Celebrates decay

  • Condems restoration

Historic value and Use value

• ‘Modern Cult of Monuments’ 1903

• historic value

  • preserves original state

  • monument as document

• use value

  • prioritises function

  • allows restoration for safety

Krzysztof Pomian

• ‘Collectors and Curiosities’ 1987

  • = Theory of collections and memory

• Introduced semiophors

• Objects gain symbolic meaning

• Collections serve as memory systems

Romila Thapar

• Indian historian

• heritage as contemporary past

• case Ashoka pillars edicts

• selection of heritage is shaped by politics

• meaning of heritage is not fixed

• heritage is contested

Tapati Guha Thakurta

• Indian historian

• Colonial archaeology in India

• Cunningham and Fergusson

• Antiquities as Western construct

• Paradox of authentic past

• Foundations of discipline

Durga Puja

• Annual Hindu festival in Kolkata

• Living intangible heritage

• UNESCO inscription 2021

• Ritual art tourism politics

• Challenges static heritage

Aga Khan Trust for Culture

• Humayun Tomb project

  • Active since 1998

• Conservation with development

• Community centred heritage

• Living lifeworld

Ashoka Chakra

• Derivedfrom Ashokan pillar

• Adopted in Indian flag in 1947

• Symbol of Dhamma Ethics

• Modern nationalist use

• Example of selective heritage

Ayohya Conflict

• Ram Janmabjumi Babri Masjid dispute

  • Mosque built in 16th century

  • Demolition in 1992

• Supreme court ruling 2019

• Example of politicised heritage

Waqf

• Islamic endownment since 12th century

  • Property dedicated to God

  • cannot be sold

• Community heritage system

• Modern legal conflicts

Alain Schnapp

• ‘The Discovery of the Past’ in 1993

  • Universal antiquarianism

• Challenge origin myths of heritage

• Collecting as human constant

• Cross Cultural heritage

Infinite Regress

• = Concept in Schnapp scholarship

• no single heritage origin

• every beginning refers backward

• present a centred process

  • continuity across time

Semiophors Pomian

• Defined in 1987

• Objects removed from use

  • Gain meaning from collection context

• Mediate Invisible past

• Activated by interpretation