mod 3. contemporary approaches to archaeology

the archaeology formula

who did what, where, including or excluding whom and why

paradigm

defines questions, defines acceptable data, seeks particular answers, no paradigm is better or worse than other -> each has a value for being asked

two big archaeology paradigm

cultural materialism (cultural process or processual archaeology) and postmodernism (post-processualism)

cultural Materialism

scientific, empirical objective, material factors -> environment, technology, subsistence. look for similarities and differences in human societies.

divided into three components 1. bottom (infrastructure) that supports our basic needs like food, shelter

2. middle (structure) -> domestic economy, production, exchange

3. top (superstructures) are the values, rules, beliefs, religion. causality runs from bottom to the top

emphasis of cultural materialism

evolutionary generalizations, regularities in sociocultural systems, downplays the importance of individuals \

post modernism

developed as a reaction to the enlightenment to contrast -> absolute truth, linear progress, rational thought, science & technology key -> the search for proof.

was more of a philosophical movement in literature -> there is no 'truth' meaning that it is historically situated as understanding of the world is a product of the time we live in. its impact on archaeology was Derrida on his deconstruction as people did have non objective biases

contemporary approaches in archaeology

1. culture history (what when where) 2. processualism (how and why ) 3. postprocessualism (why, 'insiders pov')

cultural history

got its beginning as a chronology building exercise, dealing with past evens from two perspectives (as a sequence of things that happens smth else ). normative model of culture -> culture is the rules or nomes that govern behaviour in a societies. material remains reflect past behaviour across sequence (time) and geographical distribution (space).

how to write culture history

1. data collection -> key attributes of sites, best preserved, stratified deposits, large sample

2. 2. sensitive traits (to change), parts of objects or entire ones.

3. 3. mapping out those traits - things go in an out of style - flinders?

4. 4. expansion - relate and compare information then construct regional chronology, starting at the present and going to the past

5. 5. regional synthesis

Processual Archaeology

wanted to explain, not just describe, cultural change over time in a scientific manner. it is about cultural process that is Synchronic (Ecological model - how culture functions at one point in time) and Diachronic (materialist model - how culture changes overtime).

two other branches -> evolutionary archaeology (how technological knowledge is transmitted -> con makes technology the reason change has occured) and behavioural archaeology (processes by which technology is made, used, and becomes part of archaeological record)

Ecological mode

focused on the environment -> culture is adaptive, not deterministic, opportunities & limitations.

the cultural core of subsistence related traits mediates between environment and the rest of the culture.

explaining process

construct hypothesis (a testable question) and then test hypothesis (test data)

frameworks

cultural system -> reconstruction as integrated cultural systems.

multilinear cultural evolution -> all societies do not evolve according to a single sequence

components of cultural systems

1. environment 2. population 3. society 4. sedentism 5. economy (production)

multilinear cultural evolution

all societies do not evolve according to a single sequence. adaptation to environment through -> technology, organizational and ideational subsystems, adaptive responses for different environments

what processes led to Minoan civilization

1. diversification of agriculture 2. surpluses, 3. movement of goods outside communties 4. exchange for high priced goods 5. exchanged controlled by elite 6. elite in power

post processual archaeology

opened the door to explaining cultural change instead of simply mapping and dating cultures. culture = adaptation to environment, change = reaction to environment,

The postprocessual school reacted against the systems theory approach, arguing that such models removed the individual from any picture of the past. actively participating within culture, circular time (opposed to linear), understand more smaller scale behaviour, understanding (humanistic) rather than trying to explain how they were organized. **View archaeological record from multiple perspectives -> historical archaeology has led to development about daily life and better chronological control

post processual archaeology challenging the normative model

trying to understand the culture core "the norms". norms become 'options' 'fuzzy norms'Place expressions of culture unique -> feminist / gender archaeology (challenged gender assumptions) and Neo Marxist archaeology (power and conflicting interests )

Post processual Approach reading symbols (expression of gender in material culture)

1. Nguni pottery of south east Africa -> only women making pottery, create specialized patterns,

2. 2. masculine and feminine symbols on Zulu clothing -> (1 diamond female, 2 diamond married woman, male triangle etc) -> number of points indicate number of cattle paid for bride.

3. 3. Pottery morphology and mens clothing -> head-ring worn by married men relates to brim of pot

what do archaeologists do

1. time space systematics (generate a framework)

2. 2. reconstruct past life-ways (how were people living in the past)

3. 3. explain process (understand the process of change and why change happens

4. ) 4. reconstruct meaning (understand the meaning of things and the meaning of why people would live that way)

time space (form/shape record takes)

find things relative to one another across space and through time

reconstruction (function)

what are these things are and what behaviours are tied to it to comprehend a lifestyle -> farming,

Explanation (process)

what happened to cause things to change from living one way to change to another -> what stressors? emphasis on diff kinds of data and evidence to explain this transition

static & dynamics

involves creating links -> 1. models (assumptions of what might have been) 2. bridging arguments (between archaeological static record and living dynamic)

levels of theory

low level, middle level, high level

low theory

refers to low level observations and interpretations from hands on archaeological field and lab work -> physical observations and contextual observations.

basic observations of form and context -> subject to scrutiny

middle level theory

hypothesis that links archaeological observations with the human behaviour or natural process that produced them -> need to underestand ongoing behaviour / natural processes

high level theory (general)

seeks to answer large why questions, generated a lot of observations and linked things to human behaviour

what is theory

explanation for observable, empirical phenomenon, seeks to explain relationship between variables. to answer who what where why when or how questions

paradigm

a lot of observation that seem to work, they are bundled up into an explanation. it is a framework, often unstated, for understanding a research problem -> not realize your in it because it is 'culture'

what is data?

relevant observation made on object that then serve as basis for study and observation. data = observation -> interpretation

interpreting the past

The creation of such culture history frame­ works—which focus on the “where” and “when” of archaeological materials—was one of the primary goals of archaeology until the middle of the twentieth century, yet once the “where” and “when” have been established. Behavior and social change, however, are diffi­cult to reconstruct from the archaeological record. Material objects and data form the basis of our information, but the artifacts and features that have survived from the past are static.

approaches in archaeology

processual archaeology (which includes evolutionary archaeology) tends to be more functional, empirical, and scientific in orientation; while postprocessual archaeology (which includes gender archaeology) tends to be more interpretive and subjective.

subjectiveness and objective approaches

A subjective approach demands that the archaeologist is aware that his or her interpretations are drawn from his or her own expectations and experiences. An objective approach, sees the world as real and observable, provided the right instruments and methods are used.

This positivist view of social science assumes that the investigator’s values do not necessarily bias obser­vations and interpretations.

A common objective approach is functionalism, which examines the components of society to determine the purpose those parts play in maintaining the whole, and how social institutions satisfy the needs of society and its members.

middle range theory

Middle range theory utilizes a series of methods, assumptions, and ideas to connect static archaeological data to the dynamics of past human behavior.

In other words, middle range theory can be used to infer human behaviors and environ­ mental processes from the archaeological record

selectionist archaeology

believe that cultural change in the archaeological record should be explained by natural selection and other Darwin­ ian processes operating on inherited variation in artifacts and behavior.

Selectionist archaeologists argue that other schools and explanations do not follow a truly scientific approach, and insist that natural selection, drift, and other evolutionary forces explain changes in the kind, characteristics, and number of artifacts at archaeological sites.

Evolutionary Ecology

focuses on the dynamic relationship between human society and its environment, using culture as the primary mechanism of adaptation. optimal foraging Theory -> suggested that the most efficient foraging strategies produce the greatest return in energy relative to time and effort expended and assumed that humans make rational decisions based on economic efficiency.

Gender archaeology

started 1984, argued that women, as the people who originally domesticated plants and animals, were likely responsible for the agricultural revolution. At a time when many archaeologists focused on groups rather than individuals, and often assumed that only men had key roles in the past. Gender studies have emphasized the evolution of sex differences; the division of labor; social constructions of gender.

Agency and practice theory

developed from a major point of contention between the proces­sual and postprocessual schools of archaeology; namely, the role of the individual.

In proces­sual approaches, the use of systems theory often emphasized the role of large­scale processes at the expense of the individual.

Postprocessual approaches, as we have seen, worked to introduce individual and subjective experience into their interpretations.