AP World - Unit 3 (Terms/IDs/Dates)

Qing imperial portraits

Highly formal, detailed paintings of emperors and empresses that emphasized authority, Confucian virtue, and continuity of dynastic rule. Used for political legitimacy, ancestor worship, and to project the emperor’s image as both a moral Confucian ruler and a powerful, semi-divine figure.

Qianlong

Qianlong (r. 1735–1796) was a Qing dynasty emperor known for expanding China’s territory, promoting arts and culture, and strengthening imperial power. He sponsored encyclopedias, paintings, and calligraphy to legitimize his rule and showcase Qing sophistication.

Akbar

Akbar (r. 1556–1605) was a Mughal emperor in India known for expanding the empire, promoting religious tolerance, and creating a centralized administration. He encouraged cultural blending, arts, and the development of a fair taxation system.

Aurungazeb

Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707) was a Mughal emperor known for expanding the empire to its greatest size, enforcing strict Islamic laws, and reversing many of Akbar’s policies of religious tolerance. His conservative rule contributed to internal dissent and eventual decline of the empire.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum in Agra, India, built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1632–1653) in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is renowned for its stunning architecture, symmetry, and as a symbol of love.

Zamindar

A zamindar was a landowner in Mughal India who collected taxes from peasants and paid a portion to the empire. They often held local power and could become wealthy and influential.

Tax Farming 

A system where the government outsourced tax collection to private individuals or groups, who paid a fixed amount to the state and kept any extra they collected. It was used in empires like the Ottoman and Mughal to raise revenue efficiently.

Devshirme

A system in the Ottoman Empire where Christian boys were taken from their families, converted to Islam, and trained for military (Janissaries) or administrative service to serve the sultan.

Mehmed II

Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481), also called Mehmed the Conqueror, was an Ottoman sultan who captured Constantinople in 1453, transforming it into Istanbul and establishing the Ottoman Empire as a major power.

Sunni Islam

Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, emphasizing the authority of the Qur’an and Hadith and accepting the first four caliphs as rightful successors of Muhammad. It focuses on communal consensus and orthodox practices.

Shi’a Islam

Shia Islam is a branch of Islam that believes leadership should stay within Muhammad’s family, starting with his cousin and son-in-law Ali. It emphasizes the authority of imams and distinct religious practices from Sunni Islam.

Martin Luther (Lutherism)

Martin Luther (1483–1546) was a German monk who challenged the Catholic Church, sparking the Protestant Reformation. Lutheranism, based on his teachings, emphasizes salvation by faith alone, the authority of the Bible, and rejection of certain Church practices like indulgences.

Indulgences

purchasing forgiveness for someone who is in purgatory so as to expedite their journey to heaven (pay to rid of sins). thought behind this was the theology of good works (belief that the money goes to the poor)

John Calvin (Calvinism)

John Calvin (1509–1564) was a French theologian who led the Protestant Reformation in Switzerland. Calvinism emphasizes predestination, the absolute sovereignty of God, and a disciplined, moral life.

Henry VII (Church of England)

Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547) was an English king who created the Church of England, breaking from the Catholic Church, mainly to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. This established royal control over religion in England while retaining many Catholic traditions.

Aztec Tribute (human sacrifice)

The Aztecs collected tribute—goods, labor, or captives—from conquered peoples. Human sacrifice was part of religious rituals, believed to honor the gods and ensure cosmic balance.

Sunni vs. Shi’a

Sunni Muslims believe the caliphs should be chosen by the community, while Shia Muslims believe leadership must stay within Muhammad’s family, starting with Ali. Sunnis focus on communal consensus; Shias emphasize the authority of imams.

Sikhism

Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded in the 15th century in Punjab, India, by Guru Nanak. It emphasizes equality, devotion to one God, community service, and rejection of the caste system.

Russia

Russia during 1450–1750 was a growing centralized state under the Tsars, expanding territory eastward and westward. It used Orthodox Christianity, the nobility, and serfdom to consolidate power, and Peter the Great later modernized the military, government, and culture along European lines.

Ivan the terrible

Ivan IV (r. 1547–1584), called Ivan the Terrible, was the first Russian tsar. He centralized power, expanded Russian territory, and used the Oprichnina to suppress nobles, often ruling with extreme cruelty.

Michael Romanov

Michael Romanov (r. 1613–1645) was the first tsar of the Romanov dynasty, chosen to restore stability after the Time of Troubles. He strengthened central authority, reestablished order, and laid the foundation for Romanov rule in Russia.

Peter the Great

Peter the Great (r. 1682–1725) was a Russian tsar who modernized Russia by adopting European technology, reorganizing the government, building a strong army and navy, and promoting western culture to strengthen the state.

Boyars

Boyars were the highest-ranking nobles in Russia, serving as advisors to the tsar. They held significant land and power, but their influence declined under rulers like Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great.

Cossacks 

Cossacks were semi-independent, skilled warriors in Russia and Ukraine, known for their cavalry and frontier defense. They often served the Russian state but valued their autonomy and resisted central control at times.

Yasak 

Yasak was a tribute, usually in furs, that Indigenous peoples in Siberia were required to pay to the Russian Empire. It helped fund Russian expansion and control in Siberia during the 16th–18th centuries.

Ming (date)

1368-1644

Manchu (date) 

1644-1911

Mughal (date)

1526-1857

Safavid-Ottoman Conflict (date)

1623-1639

Martha Confederacy (date)

1721-1818

Ottoman (date)

1299-1922

Ottoman Empire reaches its largest extent (date)

1520-1560

Safavid (date) 

1501-1722

Fall of Constantinople (date)

1453

Protestant Reformation (date)

1517-1648

Printing press spreads to Europe (date)

1450

Counter Reformation (date)

1545-1648

Thirty Years War (date)

1618-1648

Peace of Westphalia (date)

1648

Ottoman empire importance  

The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–1922) was a major political, military, and economic power connecting Europe, Asia, and Africa. It controlled key trade routes, influenced Islamic culture and politics, and shaped regional diplomacy for centuries.

Istanbul importance

Istanbul, formerly Constantinople, was strategically located between Europe and Asia, controlling key trade routes. As the Ottoman capital, it was a political, economic, and cultural center of the empire.

Qing Empire importance

The Qing Empire (1644–1912) was China’s last imperial dynasty, expanding territory to its greatest size and maintaining stability through a centralized bureaucracy. It influenced East Asian trade, culture, and politics, and promoted Confucian traditions and economic growth.

Beijing importance

Beijing was the political and cultural capital of the Ming and Qing dynasties. It housed the Forbidden City, served as the emperor’s residence, and was the center of government, ceremonies, and imperial authority.

Mughal Empire importance 

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857) unified much of India, promoting trade, art, architecture, and cultural blending. It strengthened centralized administration, revenue systems, and influenced religion and society in South Asia.

Agra importance 

Agra was a major Mughal city and imperial capital, known for its strategic location, trade, and architecture. It houses the Taj Mahal and was a center of politics, culture, and administration.

Safavid Empire importance

The Safavid Empire (1501–1736) established Shi’a Islam as Iran’s state religion, unifying the region politically and religiously. It was a center of trade, culture, and art, linking the Middle East to Eurasian trade networks.

Isfahan importance

Isfahan was the Safavid capital, celebrated for its stunning architecture, bridges, and mosques. It was a political, economic, and cultural hub that showcased Safavid wealth and artistic achievement.

Russian Empire importance

The Russian Empire (16th–20th centuries) expanded across Eurasia, consolidating power under the tsar. It controlled vast resources, influenced European and Asian politics, and spread Orthodox Christianity and Russian culture.

Moscow importance

Moscow became the political and religious center of Russia after the fall of Kiev. It was the seat of the tsars, a hub for Orthodox Christianity, and a key city for trade and territorial expansion.

Songhay Empire importance

The Songhay Empire (c. 15th–16th centuries) was a powerful West African state that controlled trans-Saharan trade routes. It was known for its wealth, Islamic scholarship, and cultural centers like Timbuktu.

Timbuktu importance

Timbuktu, in the Songhay Empire, was a major center of trade, Islamic learning, and culture. It hosted universities, libraries, and mosques, making it a hub for scholarship in West Africa.

England imporantce

England emerged as a global power through trade, colonization, and naval strength. It influenced politics, economy, and culture in Europe and overseas, paving the way for the British Empire.

Scotland importance 

Scotland played a key role in trade, politics, and cultural developments in the British Isles. Its eventual union with England in 1707 helped consolidate power, resources, and influence for Great Britain.

Ireland importance 

Ireland was strategically important for England due to its location and resources. It was involved in colonization, trade, and religious conflicts, influencing British politics and control in the British Isles.

France importance

France was a major European power with strong monarchy, culture, and military. It influenced European politics, arts, science, and colonization, and played a central role in wars and diplomacy.

Poland importance

Poland was a major European state, known for its agriculture, trade, and political influence through the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It served as a cultural and religious crossroads in Eastern Europe.

Protestant and Catholic areas on a map

uring the Reformation and after, Northern Europe (like England, Scandinavia, and parts of Germany) became predominantly Protestant, while Southern Europe (Spain, Italy, France, and Austria) remained mostly Catholic. This division influenced politics, culture, and conflicts in Europe.

autocratic

Autocratic describes a system of government where one person holds absolute power and authority, often without checks from laws or representative bodies.

westernization

Westernization is the adoption of Western European ideas, technology, culture, and political practices by other countries, often to modernize or strengthen the state.

wooden forts in russia

Wooden forts, were built in medieval Russia to protect cities from invasions. They served as military, political, and administrative centers before stone fortifications became common.

temple of heaven

The Temple of Heaven in Beijing was a ceremonial site where Ming and Qing emperors performed rituals to pray for good harvests. It symbolizes the connection between the emperor, heaven, and cosmic order.

court of colonial affairs

The Court of Colonial Affairs managed relations, trade, and administration of frontier regions and tributary states. It helped the Qing Empire control ethnic minorities and oversee foreign diplomacy.

queue

The queue was a hairstyle imposed by the Qing dynasty, requiring men to shave the front of their heads and braid the rest of their hair. It symbolized loyalty to the emperor and submission to Qing rule. Manchu

subjecthood 

Subjecthood is the condition of being under the authority of a ruler or state, often involving obedience, taxes, and loyalty. In empires, it defined who owed allegiance and was protected by the government.

oath of allegiance

An oath of allegiance is a formal promise to be loyal to a ruler or state. It was used by monarchs, like Russian tsars, to secure obedience from subjects and legitimize their authority.

table of ranks

The Table of Ranks, introduced by Peter the Great, was a system that organized military, civil, and court positions. It allowed individuals to gain status based on service to the state rather than noble birth, helping centralize power.

tsar

Tsar was the title for the ruler of Russia, equivalent to an emperor. Tsars held absolute political, military, and religious authority over the state.

holy synod

The Holy Synod was a government-controlled body established by Peter the Great to manage the Russian Orthodox Church. It replaced the patriarch and brought the church under state authority.

treaty of nerchinsk 

The Treaty of Nerchinsk was between Russia and China (Romanovs + Qing). Settled boundary between the two. Hurt both because stopped further expansion. Helped both because created a peaceful relationship + money/resources can go elsewhere in empire and not towards military funding for war. 

wang yangming

Wang Yangming (1472–1529) was a Chinese philosopher of the Ming dynasty who emphasized the unity of knowledge and action. He taught that moral intuition and self-cultivation could lead to sagehood, challenging traditional Confucian scholarship.

4 main islamic empires

Ottoman, safavid, mughal, songhay

jihad

religious warfare

timar

A timar was a land grant given by the Ottoman sultan to soldiers or officials in exchange for military service. The holder collected taxes from the land to support themselves and their obligations to the empire.

janissaries

Janissaries were elite infantry soldiers of the Ottoman Empire, originally recruited through the devshirme system. They were loyal to the sultan, highly trained, and played a key role in the military and administration.

shah

Shah is the title for a king or emperor in Persia (Iran). Shahs held political, military, and religious authority over their empire.

sultanate of women

The Sultanate of Women (16th–17th centuries) was a period when women of the Ottoman imperial harem, especially mothers of sultans, held significant political influence. They affected succession, diplomacy, and court decisions behind the scenes.

council of trent 

The Council of Trent was a Catholic Church council that reformed church practices, clarified doctrine, and responded to the Protestant Reformation. It strengthened Church authority, addressed corruption, and reaffirmed core Catholic beliefs.

society of jesus (jesuits)

The Jesuits, founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola, were a Catholic religious order focused on education, missionary work, and combating Protestantism. They played a key role in the Counter-Reformation.

simony

Simony is the buying or selling of church offices, positions, or sacred things. It was widely criticized and addressed during church reforms like the Counter-Reformation.

pluralism

Pluralism is the practice of holding multiple church offices or benefices at the same time. It often led to neglect of duties and was a target of reform during the Reformation.

nepotism

Nepotism is favoritism shown to relatives or friends, especially by giving them positions of power or advantage. In the Church, it was a common abuse criticized during the Reformation.

catholic

universal, one christian church in west euro after the schism with orthoxy in 11th century (1000’s)

transubstantiation

process in which the bread and wine of the eucharist (catholic religion) turn into the body/blood of Jesus

sacraments

baptism, eucharist, confirmation, reconciliation, anointing the sick, marriage, holy orders (ordination, eucharist) 

ecclesiastical

having to do with church organization/hierarchy, clergy

jizya

non-muslim tax

ulama

Islamic scholars and religious leaders who interpreted Sharia (Islamic law) and played key roles in education, law, and governance. In empires like the Ottoman and Safavid, the ulama helped legitimize rulers and maintain religious authority.

house of worship

A religious center built by Mughal Emperor Akbar where scholars of different faiths—Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, and others—engaged in interfaith dialogue. It reflected Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance and his interest in creating a more inclusive empire.

sati

hindu belief that women should kill themselves if their husband dies (akbar discouraged, aurungazeb banned) 

bhakti

A Hindu devotional movement that emphasized personal connection with a deity through love and devotion rather than ritual or caste. It spread across India, challenging social hierarchies and promoting spiritual equality, often paralleling the Islamic Sufi tradition.

Sack of Constantinople (1453)

Between Byzantine + Ottoman (Crusades Christians vs Muslims), in Anatolia. Ottoman’s won which allowed them to convert the city into a major muslim hub (Istanbul - also the new capital). Byzantine lost which ended the empire because Ottoman’s took capital + emperor making them most powerful empire in Eurasia.

Lifetime of Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

Former member of Bhakti movement which founded Sikhism in Punjab (northern India). Sikhism ignores caste distinction and seclusion of women. Scared book = Guru Granth, dress requirements, was peaceful but exposure to Hindu/Muslim made it more militant. Consolidated india because allowed for social equality and emphasized unity between men and women

Fall of Baghdad (1508)

Baghdad, between Ottomans and Safavid. Safavid empire took over Baghdad from Ottomans. Safavid = Shia. Ottoman = Sunni. Shia took over Sunni central hub.

Court of Colonial Affairs (1647)

Created to manage conquered territories separately from China. Happened during Qing expansion. Preserved cultural identity of conquered lands + area was used as a source of military recruitment.

Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

Between Protestant Reformation (spread because of printing press) and Catholics. Division was known as 30 years war. Conflict all throughout Europe. This hurt Europe because created more fragmentation in an already divided European state.

Second Siege at Vienna (1683)

Between Holy Roman Empire + Ottoman’s. Europeans came into contact with Islamic world, picked up taste for luxury goods + learned agricultural techniques. Revenge for the Crusades. Hurts the Ottoman empire because HRE won.