General Anatomy & Physiology (Online, Pelletier): Exam 4 (Final)

What gross structures are part of the upper respiratory tract, and which of the lower respiratory tract?

Upper respiratory tract: Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx

Lower respiratory tract: Trachea, main bronchi, lungs and alveoli within

What are the overall functions of the upper and lower respiratory tracts?

Upper: air passageways

Lower: Passageways for air but also purify, humidify, and warm air

What is special about these structures of the nasal cavities: the mucosa, structural adaptations, and paranasal sinuses?

Mucosa: The mucosa of the nasal cavity contain olfactory receptors, and produce mucus that moisturizes, traps and neutralizes bacteria, and is ciliated to move mucus

Structure: Has conchae formed by raised nasal meatuses that increase the SA and air turbulence to trap more particles

Paranasal sinuses: Include the frontal, sphenoidal, ethmoid, and maxillary sinuses; serve to lighten the skull, produce mucus, and are resonance chambers for speech

What are these structures within the pharynx: posterior nasal aperture, regions of the pharynx, pharyngotympanic tubes, and tonsils?

Posterior nasal aperture: connects the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx

Regions: Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx

Pharyngotympanic tubes: drain inner ear fluid into the pharynx

Tonsils: include the pharyngeal, palatine, lingual, and tubal tonsils; clusters of lymphatic tissue that are protection from infections

What is the larynx, and what are these structures of the larynx: epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, vocal cords, vestibular folds, and glottis?

Larynx: separates air and food passages and helps in the formation of speech

Epiglottis: cartilaginous flap covering the glottis that separates the trachea and esophagus

Thyroid cartilage: also known as the Adam’s apple

Vocal folds/cords: inner mucous membrane folds of the glottis that produce speech through vibration and air flow

Vestibular folds: outer mucous membrane folds that support the vocal cords

Glottis: the passage between the vestibular and vocal folds

What is the trachea and these structures of the trachea: cartilaginous rings, carina, trachealis muscle, cells that function to move debris away from lungs?

Trachea: the windpipe anterior to the esophagus

Cartilaginous rings: C-shaped rings that support the trachea and keep it open but are open posteriorly to allow for esophageal expansion

Carina: the last, key-shaped tracheal cartilage before the bronchi

Trachealis muscle: lies between the trachea and esophagus; constriction allows for tracheal constriction important in coughing

Cells for debris removal: Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium and goblet cells produce respiratory mucus

What are the main bronchi, and what are the differences between the right and left main bronchi?

Main bronchi: the two divisions of the trachea

The right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more horizontal than the left main bronchus (more common for trapping objects)

How many orders of branching are there of the bronchi? What is the function of all this branching?

23 orders of branching

Functions to increase SA for greater respiration

What are these structures of the lungs: apex, base, lobes (and how many), coverings (pulmonary/visceral pleura, parietal pleura, pleural space/cavity, pleural fluid)?

Apex: top point just deep to clavicle

Base: bottom that rests on diaphragm

Lobes: Divided by fissures; Left has 2 lobes and is smaller because of cardiac notch, right has 3 lobes

Pulmonary/Visceral pleura: visceral serosa that covers the surface of the lung

Parietal pleura: visceral serosa that lines the walls of the thoracic cavity

Pleural space/cavity: very tight space between the pulmonary and parietal pleura filled with pleural fluid

Pleural fluid: serous fluid that allows the lungs to harmlessly brush against the thoracic cavity walls without injury

Name the basic construction of the bronchial/respiratory tree

Primary bronchi → secondary/lobar bronchi → tertiary/segmental bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles

What structural changes occur in the transition between the trachea and the bronchi?

Cartilaginous rings become elastic fibers

Pseudostratified columnar cells become cuboidal cells

Capillaries wrap around alveolar sacs

Smooth muscle increases

23 orders of bronchial branching

What is the difference between the respiratory and conducting zones?

Respiratory zone: Sites of gas exchange; includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli

Conducting zone: all other respiratory structures that are air passages

What are the alveoli and what is the stroma?

Alveoli: gas-filled air spaces (the lungs are mostly air spaces)

Stroma: lung tissue; mostly elastic connective tissue for expansion during breathing

What is the air-blood barrier?

In the respiratory membrane; site of gas exchange/respiration

Composed of alveoli and capillaries between

Alveoli exchange their O2 with the CO2 from deoxygenated blood in the capillaries

What are these structures between alveoli: Type II or surfactant secreting cells, Type I alveolar cells, and alveolar macrophages?

Type II cells or surfactant secreting cells: secretes lipid molecules that coat gas-exposed alveolar surfaces; moisturizer

Type I alveolar cells: simple squamous epithelium

Alveolar macrophages: pick up debris, carbon particles, bacteria, etc.

What are the 4 steps of respiration, and which do the respiratory system and the circulatory system do?

Respiratory system:

Pulmonary ventilation: physical process of breathing

External respiration: gas exchange

Circulatory system:

Transport of O2 and CO2 through blood

Internal respiration: occurs in body tissues → carbon dioxide taken away and tissue is oxygenized

What are the 2 types of mucosa present in the nasal cavity?

Olfactory mucosa: pseudostratified columnar cells, contain sensory nerve endings involved that trigger the sneeze reflex, Bowman’s gland produces mucus that absorbs chemicals related to smell

Respiratory mucosa: pseudostratified ciliated columnar and goblet cells to move mucus and debris, contains plexus of capillaries and veins that warms are

What are the overall functions of the urinary system?

Filter and excrete waste, regulate blood volume and acid-base balance, regulate BP through renin, stimulate RBC production, activate Vit D

What are the gross structures of the urinary system?

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

What are these structures of the kidneys: renal hilum, adrenal gland, 3 layers (fibrous capsule, perirenal fat capsule, renal fascia),

Regions seen in longitudinal section of a kidney (renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pyramids and columns, renal pelvis and calyces)?

Renal hilum: indentation where the ureters, blood vessels, and nerves enter/exit the kidneys

Adrenal glands: sit on top of each kidney

3 layers—

Fibrous capsule: superficial and directly covers kidney, collage elastic fibers, prevents spread of infection

Perirenal fat capsule: deep to kidney, adipose tissue, cushions kidney from damage

Renal fascia: surrounds but doesn’t directly cover kidney, dense fibrous connective tissue, anchors kidneys in place

Regions—

Renal cortex: superficial, mainly contains nephrons involved in urine filtration/production

Renal medulla: middle layer composed of renal pyramids and columns, and collection ducts from nephrons

Renal pyramids: composed of papilla and separated by renal columns

Renal columns: sections of renal medulla that separate renal pyramids

Renal pelvis: central basin that renal calyces empty into

Renal calyces: minor calyces drain urine from pyramids into the major calyces, which drain into the renal pelvis

What two types of nephrons are there?

Cortical nephron: within renal cortex

Juxtamedullary nephron: within cortex-medulla junction

Name the main parts of the nephron

Renal corpuscle: Glomerulus and glomerular capsule

Renal tubule: proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tubule

Collecting ducts

Describe the structure of the glomerulus and glomerular capsule

Glomerulus: knot of capillaries; fenestrated: holed for blood passage and for pushing out filtrate

Glomerular capsule:

Parietal layer: simple squamous epithelium

Visceral layer: contain podocytes (specialized branching epithelial cells that cling to capillaries, foot processes block RBCs and proteins from leaking from the capillaries)

What is the structure of the renal tubule?

Single layer of cells; contains 3 parts

What is the structure of the proximal convoluted tubule?

Closest to glomerular capsule, single layer of cuboidal cells, contain the most microvilli of any region (forms a brush border for specialized reabsorption and secretion) and large mitochondria

Resorbs most of the filtrate volume

What is the structure of the nephron loop?

Contains a descending limb made of simple squamous epithelium and ascending limp of cuboidal or columnar epithelium

Pulls out Na and attracts H2O

What is the structure of the distal convoluted tubule?

Cuboidal cells with few microvilli; specialized in secretion and less reabsorption

Trace filtrate through the urinary system, starting with blood flow to the kidneys