apush period one

land bridge

a strip of land connecting Asia and North America during the Ice Age (approx. 20,000-15,000 years ago). lower sea levels exposed this route, allowing nomadic hunter-gatherers to migrate into the Americas. these people became the ancestors of diverse native american cultures.

Hohokam

a Native American civilization in present day Arizona (c. 300-1500 CE) known for extensive irrigation canals that allowed farming in dessert environments. they grew maize, beans, and squash and developed trade networks across the Southwest.

Anasazi (ancestral pueblo)

a prehistoric Native American culture of the four corners region (modern Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico). known for cliff dwellings, multi-story housing, and ceremonial kivas. eventually evolved into Pueblo peoples.

Pueblos

descendants of the Anasazi who lived in permanent adobe villages in the Southwest. practiced agriculture (especially maize), maintained complex religious traditions, and adapted to arid environments.

Adena-Hopewell culture

pre-colombian cultures (c. 800 BCE-500 CE) in the Ohio River Valley known as the Woodland Mound Builders. constructed burial mounds and earthworks and participated in long-distance trade networks exchanging copper, shells, and obsidian.

woodland mound builders

native american groups of the eastern woodlands who built earthen burial mounds for religious and ceremonial purposes. includes Adena and Hopewell cultures. their structures suggest organized labor and complex spiritual beliefs.

Mayas

advanced mesoamerican civilization (c. 250-900 CE) located in modern Mexico and Central America. known for mathematics, astronomy, written language, and complex calendars. built large stepped pyramids and city-states.

Aztecs

powerful empire in central Mexico (1300s-1521) with capital Tenochititlàn. known for tribute system, advances agriculture (chinampas floating gardens), and human sacrifice rituals. conquered by Hernan Cortes.

Incas

largest empire in pre-Columbian Americas, located along the Andes Mountains. known for centralized government, terrace farming, road systems, and quipu record keeping. conquered by Francisco Pizarro (1530s).

corn (maize)

domesticated crop originating in Mesoamérica that became the staple food for many native american societies. allowed population growth and development of complex societies. often grown with beans and squash (“three sisters”).

Algonquian

language family and cultural group located mainly along the atlantic coast and great lakes. lived in small villages, practiced farming and hunting, and often used wigwams. included tribes like the powhatan.

Siouan

a language group located in the Great Plains and Mississippi River Valley. many groups became nomadic buffalo hunters after acquiring horses from europeans.

longhouses

large wooden structures used by Iroquois peoples that housed multiple families. symbolized kinship and matrilineal social organization.

Iroquois Confederation

alliance of five native american nations (Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca) in present-day New York. formed to promote peace and cooperation. had a political structure that influenced democratic ideas.

gunpowder

an explosive technology invented in China that transformed warfare. Europeans used gunpowder weapons to gain military advantages in conquest and colonization.

sailing compass

a navigational tool using magnetism to indicate direction. enabled longer ocean voyages during the Age of Exploration

printing press

invented by Johannes Gutenberg (1450s). allowed rapid spread of knowledge, literacy, maps, and new ideas, contributing to the Renaissance and Reformation.

Isabella and Ferdinand

catholic monarchs who united Spain through marriage and sponsored Columbus’ voyage in 1492. their rules strengthened centralized power and promoted exploration.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer funded by Spain who sailed west in 1492 seeking a route to Asia. instead reached the Caribbean, beginning sustained European contact with the Americas.

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who promoted exploration along Africa’s coast. sponsored advances in navigation and shipbuilding that helped start the Age of Exploration.

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing newly discovered lands along a longitudinal line. Spain gained most of the Americas, while Portugal gained Brazil and routes around Africa.

Roanoke Island

first attempted English colony (1585) in present-day North Caroline. the settlement mysteriously disappeared, becoming known as the “Lost Colony.”

protestant reformation

religious movement beginning in 1517 when Martin Luther challenged Catholic Church authority. led to formation of Protestant churches and increased religious conflict in Europe.

nation-states

countries with centralized governments and defined borders (ex: Spain, France, England). monarchs gained power, allowing them to fund exploration and colonization.

horses

introduced by Europeans to the Americas. revolutionized transportation, hunting, and warfare for many native american groups, especially Plains tribes.

diseases

illnesses brought by Europeans (ex: smallpox, measles, influenza) that Native Americans had no immunity against. caused massive population decline.

capitalism

economic system based on private ownership, profit motive, and market competition. encouraged European investment in trade and colonies.

joint-stock company

a business in which investors pool money to fund voyages and share profits and risks. used to finance colonization (ex: Virginia Company).

encomienda

a spanish colonial labor system in which the crown granted conquistadors the right to demand labor and tribute from indigenous peoples in the americas. in theory, encomenderos were supposed to protect and christianize native americans.

asiento

a contract granted by spain to other countries or companies giving them the right to supply enslaved africans to spanish colonies.

conquistadors

spanish explorers and soldiers in the 15th and 16th centuries who conquered large parts of the americas for spain

Hernán Cortés

spanish conquistador who conquered the aztec empire in present-day Mexico (1519-1521)

Francisco Pizarro

spanish conquistador who conquered the inca empire in present-day peru (1530s)

slave trade

the forced movement of millions of africans across the atlantic ocean to work as enslaved laborers in the americas from the 1500s-1800s

middle passage

the brutal sea journey in which enslaved africans were transported across the atlantic ocean to the americas

new laws of 1542

laws issued by the spanish crown to reduce the abuse of Indigenous people in the encomienda system

Bartolomé de las Casas

spanish catholic priest and former encomendero who became a major advocate for the rights of native americans. influenced passage of the new laws of 1542

valladolid debate

a formal debate (1550-1551) in spain about how indigenous peoples should be treated

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda

spanish philosopher and theologian who argued that spain was justified in conquering native americans because they were supposedly less civilized