FP Exam 1

Ideology

set of beliefs

Party

team

Policy

rules and regulations

Law

legal legislature with punishments such as jail

Norm

social convention, enforced by peer group

Political

refers broadly to matters of government, policy, and public affairs

Partisan

Refers specifically to strong, biased allegiance to a particular party, faction, or cause

Articles 1-3 of the constitution

Article I (Congress)

Article II (Executive/Presidency)

Article III (Judiciary)

Federalist Papers

Written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison to get the constitution ratified

Federalist 2

• Union over sectionalism (confederacies) - wise men of Congress - Constitution “recommended” not “imposed.”

• Outline of argument for a “union” - national government - concept of nationhood - a single American nationality based on “design of Providence.”

Federalist 3

• Union provides best security against “foreign forces and influence”; the federal government is better equipped to handle foreign policy than individual states.

• E.g. → Spain & Britain have territories - states bordering them are more likely to provoke/conflict - but a national government will be less likely to enter into war.

Federalist 4

• “…nations in general will make war whenever they have a prospect of getting by it…”

• Competing interests (France, GB, Spain, rest of Europe, China, India) → trade, commerce, fisheries, navigation. 

• Federal government “can collect and avail itself of the talents and experiences of the ablest men…it can harmonize, assimilate, and protect” all states. “Interest of the whole.” Unified defense is the best way to prevent an attack.

• Defense/military as one unit is also better than “13 or 3 or 4 independent” armies…efficiency, communication. 

• UK example: if England/Scotland/Wales were 3 distinct militaries → then the UK would not be as powerful! 

Federalist 5

Picks up on Federalist #4 and the UK example: 

• “...the history of Great Britain gives us many useful lessons…”

• 3 or 4 confederates invite conflict amongst those internal vice unified defense 

“Hives and honey” language…

Discussed North vs. South differences in the new nation, the North would grow more powerful than the South, causing conflict between geographic regions. 

• American Civil War 

• Differences in regions → lead to different allies

GW’s main focus during his presidency

Protecting the independence of the new nation and avoiding wars!

Jefferson

Anti-Federalist

Louisiana Purchase: Jefferson did it when Congress wasn’t in session. Wanted the Mississippi River. Originally offered 10 million but got all the land for 15.

Washington’s 3 primary concerns in farewell address

3 primary concerns:

1. Geographic sectionalism

2. Political factionalism

3. Interference by foreign powers 

Neutrality Proclamation of 1793

Washington makes a neutrality proclamation without congressional approval. First executive order that was made by a president. The executive owns foreign policy. 

Jay’s Treaty (1794)

An agreement between the U.S. and Great Britain, negotiated by John Jay, that averted war, settled Revolutionary-era debts, and removed British forts from the Northwest Territory

XYZ Affair (1798)

A diplomatic scandal where French agents demanded bribes from American diplomats to negotiate a peace treaty, causing outrage in the U.S.. President John Adams, who refused the bribe, labeled the agents X, Y, and Z, leading to a "Quasi-War" or undeclared naval war with France.

Alien & Sedition Act (1798)

Naturalization Act: residency requirement from 5 years to 14 years 

Alien Act: granted POTUS power to deport any alien he deemed potentially dangerous 

Alien Enemies Act: apprehension and deportation of male aliens subject or citizens of hostile countries 

Sedition Act: subjected any American citizen to a fine or prison for obstructing federal law or publishing malicious or false writings against Congress/POTUS

War of 1812

Fought to stalemate by 1814. Battle of New Orleans - Andrew Jackson. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in 1815.

Monroe Doctrine

1823 - An old state of the union address that told Europe to stay out of our Hemisphere.

Commodore Perry

Begins trading with Japan, which was an isolationist

Treaty of Paris (1898)

Pushed expansion towards Asia and the Caribbean. Acquired Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Established the US as an empire with land outside the Western Hemisphere

TR and Panama

Created the Panama Canal by supporting an uprising and helping Panama earn its independence.

Roosevelt Corollary

• Big stick diplomacy: have a strong military to back you up. 

• The Roosevelt Corollary stated that the United States had the power in the Western hemisphere to monitor other countries and their “behavior”

Woodrow Wilson & WWI

• The war began in 1914, and America remained neutral until 1917.  

• The sinking of the Lusitania and the telegram intercepted by Germany incentivised America to declare war on Germany. 

• Entered the war as a young, strong country and left as a major world power.

FDR & WWII

FDR ran for a third term in 1940 and won.

World War II began in 1939 with Germany invading Poland. 

Congress passes laws that the US will remain neutral in 1936. 

• We lent the UK tanks and weapons with hopes that it would prevent us from having to be involved in the war. 

Stretched the lend-lease to the Soviet Union. 

Churchill and Roosevelt met in secret in 1941

• Draft the Atlantic Charter, which lists reasons why they are fighting 

• “Most important diplomatic friendship in the world”

TR & DJT

TR and DT both exercised their powers in the hemisphere to do what they want.

We needed to be able to create the canal to secure our hemisphere. Trump argues that we need Greenland to secure our hemisphere. 

• The Great white fleet and the great golden fleet.

Yalta/Potsdam Conferences – what did these accomplish?

Churchill, Stalin, and the President met to create the spheres of influence

Truman and the decision to drop the bomb (Hiroshima and Nagasaki)?

• Truman is President and drops the Atomic Bomb on Japan to finish the war in the Pacific. 

• It was assumed that we would have had 1 million casualties before taking Japan

• Dropped the second bomb after 3 days

What is the Containment strategy?

• The containment strategy aimed to prevent the spread of communism around the world. Capitalists vs communists 

• Marshall Plan: we’re gonna rebuild Europe 

• Truman Doctrine: supporting countries that may be prone to communism, like Greece and Turkey. Helped them to turn away from communism and defend them. Defending democracy. 

National Security Act of 1947

• DoD – creation of Secretary of Defense, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs

• Creation of the CIA – role in the Cold War 

• NSC

National Security Council

• An advisory body to handle issues that cut across the government. Issues that concern the president or need to be handled by more than one agency.

• Hard decisions  

• National Security Advisor doesn’t need to be approved by the Senate.

JFK and Cuban Missile Crisis

• Russia puts missiles in Cuba 

• JFK sends the Navy for a 13-day blockade

Vietnam War (1964 – 1973)

• The threat of communism in Vietnam 

• The domino effect of communism

1979 – Iranian hostage crisis and Soviets invade Afghanistan

CIA helped train people to fight the USSR in Afghanistan - Bin Laden

Reagan and the 1980s

• Height of Cold War – Reagan military build-up

• Simultaneous increased emergence of terrorism 

• Berlin Wall falls and USSR dissolves

Powell Doctrine and “ghosts of Vietnam”

• Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait 

• Were very successful but didn’t go after Hussein

• We should only use the military when we have a clear goal, go in heavily armed, and then leave.  

• 1991 - approval rating for Bush was 89%

• In November of 92, he lost the election

International engagement decisions (Somalia vs. Rwanda)

1994 - Didn’t get involved in Rwanda, and 1 million people died

NAFTA and rise of globalism

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) officially entered into force on January 1, 1994. Signed by the US, Canada, and Mexico, it created a massive free-trade zone by eliminating most tariffs and trade barriers.

Terrorism – USS COLE

• Terrorism is expanding 

• USS Cole is bombed in Yemen by Al-Qaeda

Afghanistan

• 2001-2021

• War of response 

Iraq

• 2003-2011

• 2014 - … due to new terrorist groups that are forming 

• Attacked Iraq so they couldn’t attack us

What are the “two presidencies”?

Domestic Issues

• More complex because you have to deal with state governments and Congress

Foreign Policy - typically, presidents prefer to operate here 

• Power without many checks and balances 

What was the “stewardship theory”

1901-1909 TR creates this theory that fundamentally minimizes the amount of overlap between the president and Congress. He uses the vagueness of the Constitution to do whatever he can. Defines informal powers. 

What are informal powers of the president?

1. National constituency: can claim to speak for all the people 

2. Bully pulpit: A term coined by Theodore Roosevelt to describe a president’s unique ability to shape public opinion by speaking out forcefully on important issues. (President Trump on X)

3. Party leader: Can rely on the members of their party.

4. Perpetual session: The President is always in session, so they can respond to FP at any time. 

5. Bureaucracy’s CEO: The President is the top of the bureaucracy and can expect that the principles and policy goals adopted will be supported by federal employees. 

6. Information dominance: Intelligence agencies report directly to the president. He has the most control over them. 

Formal FP powers of the President

1. Directing conduct of warfare (Commander in Chief)

2.  Negotiating and signing treaties and international agreements (Chief diplomat)

3. Appointing cabinet secretaries and ambassadors (CEO of American government)

4. Conducting diplomacy (CEO of American government)

3 Key Areas of “Stewardship.”

Setting the agenda

• NSS 

• SOTU

Organizing the chain of command

• National Security Council (NSC)

Taking the initiative

• Venezuela, Maduro 

• Executive Orders 

• Iran - Midnight Hammer 

• Tariffs 

Formalistic Model

A presidential management style characterized as orderly and hierarchical, featuring the structured discussion of issues following well-defined procedures, roles, and communication channels

• Nixon

• George W. Bush

Competitive Model

A management style that encourages open dialogue among presidential advisers to gain consensus

• F. Roosevelt 

• Eisenhower

Collegial Model

A management style that encourages open dialogue among presidential advisers to gain consensus

• Clinton

• Obama

Role of John Marshall (1800 and 1803)

• The president is only accountable to his country 

• The president is the sole organ of the nation

• The Supreme Court thinks FP issues are political and not law-related (constitutional) 

U.S. v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corporation (1936) FDR

Declared the president the sole organ of the nation.

What was the single most important event with respect to shaping this relationship?

The National Security Act of 1947 that created intelligence agencies

What is the “imperial presidency”

Now the president is mainly in charge of FP, with very little congressional oversight

How did the Cold War effect the imperial presidency?

Constant Conflict: The president needs to make quick decisions, like in the cuban missile crisis, 90 miles away

Who were the most powerful Presidents in FP?

• Collegial president - Bush 

• TR

• Trump

Article I, Section 8 powers

Congress can pass any law that they see as being necessary and proper to carry out their other responsibilities

Formal powers of Congress

• Declare war

• Raise/maintain military 

• Regulate commerce 

• Advice and consent on treaties and key appointments 

• Tax & spending - power of the purse 

• Laws and oversight. Necessary and proper

Informal powers of Congress

Senator/Representative personal platforms - press, social media

Oversight: 

• Hearings 

• Investigations 

3 Primary Things Congress does when engaging in AFP?

• #1: Oversight 

• #2: Budget 

• #3: Laws

How did the framers envision the division of power?

Framers envisioned a 70-30 power share for Congress and the president.

1973 - War Powers Act

Requires notifying Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and mandates their withdrawal within 60-90 days unless Congress authorizes continued action

1982 - Boland Amendment

US legislative amendments passed between 1982 and 1984 aimed at limiting or prohibiting CIA and Department of Defense funding for military support of the "Contra" rebels fighting Nicaragua's leftist Sandinista government

What made the Imperial President so powerful?

1. Nature of conflict

2. President is a superpower

Iran-Contra Affair (Reagan and the 1980s)

• Contras were fighting the communists, which Reagan backed, and was sending money to 

• Congress passed legislation to prevent money from being sent to other countries 

• The US would give Iran weapons to get hostages back, even though they had a trade embargo 

• 18 out of 30 million was sent to the contras that was supposed to go to Iran

• Reagan was investigated for his actions 

• In 1989 and 1990, George H.W Bush pardons everyone

House of Reps

• 435 member 

• Must be 25

• 2-year term - meant to provide a direct link to the will of the people 

• Elections every 2 years

• Everything is a simple majority

Senate

• 100 members

• Must be 30 

• 6-year term - meant to provide insulation, allow debate 

• ⅓ of elections every 2 years

# votes needed to pass bills in each Chamber

• House - simple majority 218

• Senate - ⅗ majority to invoke cloture

Senate – unique powers

• Filibuster - ⅗ majority to invoke cloture 

• Holds in Committee

• 100 scorpions in a jar - each senator can hold a bill at committee, which ends the bill

Committees

Each committee has jurisdiction over specific: 

• Bills (subject area)

• Budget (authorization or appropriations)

• Oversight (charged with overseeing a specific Executive Branch department)

Not always clear-cut

Oversight committees for AFP

• SASC, HASC - DoD

• SFRC, HFAC - State Policy #2

• SSCI, HPSCI - Intelligence 

• Appropriations CMTE #1

Authorization v. appropriation

Authorization: allowing someone to do something

Appropriation: funding someone to do something

What are the functions of Congress?

• Budget process

• Lawmaking

• Oversight

Forces involved in Congress being able to act and get things done

• Calender 

• Unified vs Divided - divided if any of the three isn’t the same party 

• Budget

• Congressional Behavior

Budget Breakdown

• Mandatory spending - biggest category 

• Discretionary - what Congress mainly debates against 

• Defense is the largest category 

• Net interest, smallest

What are MRAs?

Members’ Representational Allowance 

Yearly allowance to run their office, travel, and do their official jobs

It is up to each Member to decide how to allocate that money…hire more/less staff, have more offices in their district, focus more on D.C., travel more or less

Average MRAs: 

• House: 1.9 million

• Senate: 4.5 million

Desert Storm

• Saddam Hussein wanted oil from Kuwait 

• Was a Sunni, and Iran was mainly Shia 

• Used chemical weapons on his own people 

• US, UK, France, Saudi Arabia, Canada, and Egypt 

• Saudi’s were training for chemical warfare

What does DIME stand for?

• D = Diplomacy 

• I = Information (intelligence)

• M = Military 

• E = Economic 

Diplomacy Complex

• The U.S. Department of State by numbers 

• 75,000 employee 

• 271 diplomatic posts 

• ~60 billion in funding 2025

• Jefferson was the first Secretary of State

Intelligence Complex

16 agencies 

All fall under ODNI

Some also DoD elements

ODNI established in 2004 as part of IRTPA

• CIA was not receptive at first to ODNI, as they were used to going straight to the president 

CIA Intelligence

• NSA - electronics 

• NGA - pictures 

• NRO - designs, builds, launches, surveillance satellites 

• NSA and NGA are HUMINT

DIA Intelligence

• DoD

• ONI - Naval Intelligence

• AI - Army Intelligence

• AFI - Air Force Intelligence

Defense Complex

~3 million employees (2.1 military and ~800,00 civilians)

~750 military bases across 80 countries (128 of these in other countries)

~850+ billion in funding

Combatant Command: 

• In charge of different regions of the world

Economic Complex

• Congress tends to play a bigger role in economic affairs than in national security 

• Clinton created the NEC

Foreign Policy elite

• 5%

• People who engage in the FP sphere 

• Government officials, former government officials, academics 

• Used to drive conversation in America, but less so in the past 10 years

Attentive Public

• 15%

• Interested but not engaged

General Public

80%

Three primary roles the media plays in the U.S. foreign policy process

1. Source of information and opinions - keeping the public informed 

2. Agenda setter - links public concerns and government positions

• Limitations: 

• Government attention is drawn to trouble spots that are readily accessible to camera crews.

• Focus on regional hot spots prevents long-term problems. 

• Media-driven FP erodes diplomats and other public officials to make strategies.

3. Government watchdogs - scrutinize government actions and reveal wrongdoings 

• Can be used as an embarrassment tactic 

• Example: Edward Snowden

Role of media for government officials

1. Explaining government policies 

2. Disseminating propaganda

3. Leaking confidential information to gauge the public's reaction.

What issue do the people most care about?

The economy

Digital diplomacy

The evolution of the concept of public diplomacy that uses the Internet and new communication technologies to help achieve diplomatic goals, focusing on digital media changes in the diplomatic environment, diplomatic agendas such as cybersecurity, privacy, and the use of social media tools.

Public diplomacy

The impact of public opinion formation and foreign policy execution

Hyperpuralism

When interest groups become so powerful that they can capture government policies.

Example: In 1961, President Eisenhower warned against a “military-industrial complex” that threatened to leave defense contractors effectively driving U.S. national security policy

NGOs

both independent and working with the government (State Department) and international organizations (U.N.).

Think Tanks

“foreign policy elite”, driving discussion, and serving as “government officials in waiting” for the next administration

Private corporations

 economic interests

Citizens

social movements, anti-war protests, etc