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psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
nature the contribution that genes make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
evolutionary perspective
the study of the evolution of the brain and the mind, using principles of natural selection
natural selection
the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed onto succeeding generations
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us
heredity
the genetic transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring
genes
the biochemical units of heredity
genome
the complete instructions for making an organism
nurture
the contribution that experience makes to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
eugenics
selectively breeding humans to promote certain characteristics
identical (monozygotic) twins
individuals that developed from a single fertilized egg that split into two, creating two genetically identical individuals
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs, and genetically no closer than ordinary siblings outside of sharing a prenatal environment
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
epigenetics
"in addition to" genetics, or the study of the molecular mechanism by which environments can influence genetic expression without changing the DNA
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
the brain and spinal cord
nerves
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk reflex
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs, divided into the sympathetic which arouses and the parasympathetic which calms
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system with the rest of the body
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (also called the skeletal nervous system)
neurons
a nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system
cell body
the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, the cell's life support center
dendrites
a neuron's often bushy branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
axon
the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles/glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons, enabling vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron, the tiny gap created is called the synaptic cleft
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, also playing a role in learning, thinking, and memory
reflex arc
a simple spinal reflex pathway consisting of a single sensory and motor neuron that communicate through interneurons
sensory or afferent neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body's muscles and sensory receptors towards the brain and spinal cord
motor or efferent neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord back to the muscles and sensory receptors
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord which communicate internally to process information between the two neurons
action potential
the neural impulse, or a brief electrical charge, which travels down the axon
all-or-nothing principle
the principle that when neurons either fire with a full-strength response or don't fire at all - no in between or varied strengths
depolarization
the process of the neuron losing the -70 charge and becoming positive
reuptake
the sending neurons process of reabsorbing the neurotransmitters
multiple sclerosis
the deterioration of myelin sheaths leading to diminished control and slower reaction time due to slow communication
neurotransmitters
chemical messages that cross the synaptic gap between neurons when released by a sending neuron that travels across the synapse and binds to receptor sites of the receiving neuron, influencing whether a neural impulse generates
excitatory neurotransmitters
molecules that increase a neurotransmitter's action
dopamine
a neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion - linked to schizophrenia
norepinephrine
a neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal
refractory period
the period after a neuron fires in which the neuron rests to return to the initial state or charge, not allowing more action potentials to occur
resting potential
the positive outside of negative inside charges of the neuron at a neutral state
threshold
the level of stimulation that is needed to trigger a neural impulse
myasthenia gravis
a neuromuscular disease that inhibits muscles from contracting due to ACh transmission being blocked
inhibitory neurotransmitters
molecules that inhibit or block the action or neurotransmitters
serotonin
a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
glutamate
a major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory
endorphins
neurotransmitters that help feed either feelings of pain or pleasure
acetylcholine
a neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory
GABA
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
substance P
a neurotransmitter involved in pain perception and immune responses
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
leptin
a protein hormone secreted by fat cells in the abdomen - STOPS you from eating
melatonin
a sleep-inducing hormone found in the hypothalamus
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system composed of a set of glands and fat tissues that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
adrenaline
also known as epinephrine or a hormone that increases the heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar
ghrelin
the hunger hormone - GRRRRR
oxytocin
a hormone that enables orgasm, labor contractions, lactation, and social support
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in the perception in mood of the individual
substance use disorder
a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite disruptions in daily life
antagonist
molecules that inhibit or block a neurotransmitter's action
stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
caffeine
a stimulant that increases alertness and wakefulness
cocaine
a powerful addictive stimulant derived from a plant that results in a rush of euphoria, confidence, and energy
methamphetamines
amphetamines that stimulate neural activity and result in euphoria, alertness, and energy
ecstasy
a street name for a type of methamphetamine that acts as a stimulant with mild hallucinogenic traits, leading to emotional elevation and disinhibition
opioids
opium and its derivatives, responsible for depressing neural activity temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
heroin
a type of opioid that results in a rush of euphoria and relief from pain, its synthetic counterpart morphine is used as a painkiller
addiction
an everyday term for impulsive substance use and sometimes dysfunctional behaviors that continue despite harmful consequences
agonist
molecules that increase a neurotransmitter's action
reuptake inhibition
drugs or molecules, typically stimulants, that block the reuptake of stimulants leading to an increase in energy from extra dopamine and serotonin
depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
alcohol
a psychoactive substance that results in an initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition
hallucinogens
psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory image
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
marijuana
a mild hallucinogen that contains THC, responsible for enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, and relaxation
LSD
an acid that acts as a hallucinogen by generating a visual trip
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of drug, requiring large doses before experiencing the same feeling
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress associated from discontinuing the addictive drug or behavior
biological psychology
psychology that focuses on the biological components (genetics, neural, hormones) of psychological processes
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
levels of analysis
the differing views from various points to analyze and phenomenon displayed
neuroplasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood or damage, by reorganizing or by building new pathways with experience
EEG
a brain scan that measures the waves of electrical activity across the brain by placing electrodes on the scalp
MEG
a brain scan that measures magnetic fields from the neural activity
MRI
an imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to generate images of soft tissue, showing the anatomy of the brain
CT
an imaging technique that uses x-ray photographs from different angles to construct a slice of the brain
PET
a technique used for detecting brain activity by tracking radioactive glucose in the brain
fMRI
a technique used for showing the blood flow in the brain, and therefore, showing function and structure
lesion
tissue destruction to the brain that occurs naturally or intentionally to experiment the effects
brain stem
the central core of the brain which begins at the end of the spinal cord into the cell and is responsible for autonomic survival functions
hindbrain
the medulla, pons, and cerebellum which directs essential survival functions such as breathing, sleeping, wakefulness, coordination, and balance
midbrain
atop the brainstem which connects the hindbrain to the forebrain, mainly responsible for controlling some motor movement but mainly transmitting auditory and visual information
forebrain
the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus which manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor movement