AAS 275 - Midterm
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bell hooks: black looks race and representation
spectatorship focus
mass media + representation
why it is important?
spectatorship focus: the way Blackness and Black people are experienced in literature, music, television and film
decolonization is understood as an act of exorcism from the colonizer and colonized
from the colonized - involves liberation from the imperialist, racist perspectives are integrated in our society
for African-Americans, little has changed regarding their representation in film
still see images of Black people that reinforce White supremacy (though such images may be constructed by White people OR people of color / Black people who see the world through an internalized racism)
located within systems favorable to Whites, many Black people believe their lives unworthy of analysis
difficult to “speak” about their experience
direct connection between the maintenance of White Supremacist Patriarchy and the view of mass media of certain images
these images often maintain the oppression, exploitation of Black people. these images were originally created with the goal of affirming notions of White’s racial superiority. from the time of slavery, White supremacists recognized that the control of images is central to the maintenance of any system of racial domination.
bell hooks: black looks race and representation (part 2)
connection between regime of representation = media = power
how representation can tear people’s identity apart
direct connection between the maintenance of White Supremacist Patriarchy and the view of mass media of certain images
in these dominant regimes of representation, Black people were constructed as different and labelled as “Other”
not only that but beauty ideals often resemble White supremacist values
ex: the beauty standard is fair skin, straight hair, etc.
for Black people, the pain of learning you cannot control your own images and how you see yourself, tears peoples identities apart
to heal these wounds we must transform where, and under who’s authority these images are made
we have to change how we are seen (our representation). to do that, we have to change the people who make those representation decisions through our political movements.
bell hooks: black looks race and representation (part 3)
representation & how Black people are seen
how representation can change how people see things
to health these wounds we have to change who is making these representation decisions through political movements
cultural identities have a history of undergoing transformation
film (more than any other media) determines how Blackness and Black people are seen and how other groups will respond to us based on said images
the politics of domination, especially in media, inform the way the majority of images are seen
think about Gaza
non-Black allies have to acknowledge and validate the other races experience
Stuart Hall Introduction (part 1)
language, culture, representation
Hall focuses on the question of representation
he believes representation produces culture
culture = shared meanings
a bunch of people looking at things a similar way and deriving similar meanings (hence the shared meaning)
language = the medium in which we make sense of things where meaning is produced and exchanged
meanings can only be shared through language making it central to culture and meaning
how does language construct meanings?
it operates as a representational system
in language we use sounds, symbols, words, etc to represent our feelings and beliefs to other people
ex: spoken language → sounds. written language → words. music → notes.
representation — through language — is central to the processes by which meaning is produced
Stuart Hall Introduction (part 2)
culture
in traditional forms, culture is said to embody the best in society = “High Culture”
it is the sum of all the great ideas that have happened over the years
in modern times, it is more what is popular at a global scale in regards to music or art = “Pop Culture”
a debate → high = good, pop = bad
in a social science perspective, it is referred to as a “way of life” about the people or a community
people are now trying to emphasize the importance of meaning to the definition of culture
it's argued culture is not a set of things rather a set of practices
the ‘giving and taking of meaning’ between members of a society or group
thus culture depends on interpreting meaning-wise what is happening in the world and ‘making sense’ of it in similar ways
cultural meaning organizes and regulates social practices
different cultures → diff meanings ascribed to each thing → influences practices/actions
since the cultural turn.. meaning is thought to be produced NOT found
social constructionist approach
Stuart Hall Introduction (part 3)
semiotic vs. discursive vs. social constructionist
social constructionist approach
meaning is produced NOT found
semiotic approach
the “science of signs” and their general role as vehicles of meaning in a culture
discursive approach
constructing knowledge of a particular topic of practice
a cluster — or formation — of ideas, images, etcetera which provide knowledge of a topic
these discursive formations determine what is and is not appropriate
semiotic versus discursive approach
the semiotic looks at the HOW of representation (how does language produce meaning)
discursive approach is concerned with the effects and consequences of representation (how do people in power influence the discussion around a topic)
Lecture on bell hooks (black looks and representation) & Stuart Hall (introduction)
black cultural studies is a critical field of study with how Black culture creates, and is created by, societal ideas about race, gender, sexuality, class and nationality
Stuart Hall
representation and power (how does representation “happen” and what are the consequences of it)
bell hooks
how are oppressive structures maintained
Key Words (Stuart Hall)
representation: the production of meaning through language
language: a representational system. uses signs and symbols to represent people’s thoughts and feelings.
culture: shared meanings.
text: the cultural object/artifact you are analyzing
historical context: places texts in a time, place, etc.
semiotics: the study of “the science of signs” and their role as vehicles of meaning
discourse: the surrounding conversation of a topic
Key Concepts (bell hooks)
Black representation is always shaped by the context of white media
white supremacy, representations created justification for racism and also affect how we see Black people
representation holds oppression in place
control of images = control of narrative = power
images can maintain and create ideologies about race, gender, etc.
repetition of images make it difficult to imagine alternative possibilities
must question the intent behind media (active observer)
think about how bell hooks connects to stuart hall
moya bailey - misogynoir
misogynoir
anti-Black racist misogyny directed at Black women especially in U.S. digital/visual culture
“misogyny” (hatred of women) + “noir” (Black)
not just racism and sexism separately but the unique, intertwined oppression BW face due to race and gender
bell hooks says images shape hegemony (the dominant view)
negative stereotypes are not good but neither are overtly respectable ones
misogynoir in media normalizes white supremacy and justifies BW’s mistreatment
historical stereotypes
1. Jezebel - hypersexual stereotype from slavery era. this is how they rationalized rape and forced reproduction of enslaved women.
2. Mammy - asexual, nurturing, overweight caretaker image post slavery to justify the exploitation of domestic labor. no sexual desire.
3. Sapphire - angry Black women trope which evolved from the Mammy reinforcing the idea that BW “wear the pants” and threaten men. present in “sassy best friend” roles. leads to digital Blackface where non-Black users perform exaggerated “Sapphire” traits online.
4. Welfare Queen - manipulative BW exploiting welfare. Linda Taylor — this singular case was used as justification to cut money from welfare programs.
the Moynihan report claimed Black poverty was caused by ‘a tangle of pathology’ blaming BW as heads of the household
misogynoir could be seen in many situations
medical practices sterilization abuse → forcing or coercing women (especially women of color) into medical procedures that prevent them from having children
ex: “Mississippi Appendectomy” — in the 40’s and 60’s hospitals in Mississippi routinely performed hysterectomies on BW without their consent. a hysterectomy removes the uterus resulting in permanent sterilization. Black women entered the hospital for minor procedures and left unable to bear children.
these appendectomies reflected the idea that Black mothers were a burden on society and were 'overbreeding’
Fannie Lou Hamer, The Reif Sisters (minnie lee and mary alice were sterilized without their consent through a federally funded birth control program. exposed widespread abuse of gov family planning programs)
moya bailey - misogynoir (part 2)
cartoons BW as hypersexual and irresponsible
reinforced the myth that sterilizing them was “for society’s good”
justified violence on Black women (especially sexual violence)
CRACK (children require a caring kommunity)
during the crack cocaine crisis, offered $200 to women to get sterilized or use birth control and claimed to save children from addiction but really it targeted women of color and framed these women as irresponsible
compare the response to CRACK with the opioid crisis where White people were affected
response? compassion, rehab, medical treatment
racial double standards
Health Wise
black people are 3x more likely to die of COVID but people still blame the excuse of “they’re too lazy to put masks on”
health is shaped by factors like housing, income, racism, etc.
for a BW.. none of these factors are good
Critique of WHO
WHO defines health as “complete physical, mental and social well-being”
Bailey argues the definition is unreachable for oppressed groups because racism and sexism prevent them from reaching “complete” well being
for BW, achieving that standard is near impossible because of misogynoir so health has to be understood holistically (as freedom of racial trauma not only disease)
Digital Alchemy
transforming harmful digital representations into an empowering, healing one through hashtags/memes/reels/etc.
Digital Alchemy (2 types)
defensive AND generative
Defensive Alchemy
direct response to misogynoir (e.g. counter-hashtags)
purpose: exposure and correction
Generative Alchemy
creates new, affirming content
sustainable online communities
Black women cannot end misogynoir but they CAN transform it by reshaping how BW see themselves by creating communities and safe spaces online
Lecture 3 (moya bailey)
main questions
what is the unique form of racism and sexism that BW face in digital culture?
how do BW transform misogynoir in digital cultures?
key terms
misogynoir
“the uniquely co-constitutive racial and sexist violence that befalls Black women as a result of their interlocking oppression (race + gender)”
digital alchemy
one way that Black women participate in harm reduction
the process of transforming harmful ideas and materials into something that reduces harm through remixing, sarcasm, etc.
main concepts
media shapes our concepts of ideas like sex, gender, biology, etc.
media is responsible for how people are represented and they create narratives
representation affects policy and tangible conditions for Black women
shine bright
“Shine Bright” is a memoir and cultural history by Danyel Smith
explores how Black women have shaped and carried American culture yet are forgotten or uncredited
music has framed every moment of Smith’s life (Keyshia Cole, The Dixie Cups, etc.)
songs and artists have become a staple and metaphor for Black women’s endurance
the lineage of Black singers represent relentless drive and determination
this drive came from fear → “if we stop now, we will be forgotten”
Smith exposes a cycle of appropriation — mainstream culture dressing, singing and performing like Black women while sidelining them
Danyel Smith critiques the cultural pressure on Black women to be endlessly strong and advocates for REST as resistance
an act of putting yourself first (in a world that exploits Black women and their labor and creativity)
segregation in music connects to structural racism
radio and retail separated “white” and “black” music, keeping white artists at the center
even now, whats in the billboard top 50 excludes much of Black music and creativity
Lecture 4 + 5
key terms
cost of fame
fame: a state of being known or talked about especially for notable achievements
in music, fame and celebrity are mixed with social media. black women performers have more exposure and pressure than ever before leading to extreme stress and poor health outcomes.
patriarchy
a system in society where cisgendered men hold the power and women and gender variant people are largely excluded.
in music, the patriarchy was functioned by ensuring the people in power are men so they make the branding decisions, who becomes famous, etc.
domestic violence
violent behavior within the context of intimate relationships. in music, stars and women executives have also been victims of abuse from partners, executives, etc.
mental illness
a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress and/or impairment in functioning
in music — black women are particularly vulnerable to mental illness because of the racism and misogynoir they face *** CONNECTION FROM DANYEL SMITH TO MOYA BAILEY
Discussion 2
stereotypes in real life
Mammy
the stereotype is used to define a caretaker this Black women has no sexual appeal at all. takes care of the White people, their children and the household happily.
it is racist in that it overrides the view of slavery. people start to see slavery as something that does nothing wrong.
ideal, safe Black women. justifies their exploitation as domestic workers.
Sapphire
angry Black women. the “sassy Black friend” in television or the angry Mom.
Welfare Queen
Black women are lazy and “feed” off of other people’s money. directly resulted in a decreased funding for welfare programs. shifted blame from the system to individuals.
Stuart Hall Chapter 1 (part 1)
representation
the production of meaning through language
language = any system of signs (not just words also images, sounds, etc.)
objects do not have meaning by themselves. meaning comes from how we interpret them.
ex: a red rose is not romantic by nature. people have agreed that red roses stand for love.
meaning is produced not found → social constructionist approach
a code is a set of rules or conventions that link signs (words, images, signs) to particular meanings
for communication, people must share codes. so they link signs to similar meanings.
without shared codes, communication would be impossible because every individual would link signs to a different meaning.
ex: green light means go, yellow light is slow, red light is stop. nothing stop-like about red but we have all agreed on this code.
codes are cultural frameworks that tell us how to interpret symbols
in Hall’s theory
1. Language provides signs (vehicle)
2. Culture provides codes (meaning)
3. Representation produces meaning (uses codes to interpret signs)
representation only works through shared meanings because we can only communicate since we belong to a culture that shares the same codes
meaning is social not individual which is why Hall rejects the ‘intentional’ view which focuses on what one person meant to say.
culture
shared system of meanings
allows people to recognize what is normal and abnormal
Stuart Hall Chapter 1 (part 2)
culture + representation
representation produces and circulates cultural meanings
every image, movie, etc participates in defining what things mean in a culture
Theories of Representation
Reflective (mimetic) approach
meaning lies in the object itself, language just reflects that
problem? this ignores interpretation
Intentional Approach
meaning is what the speaker/author intends to convey (ex: when a painter paints a red sky they intend on it to mean anger)
problem? if everyone made up their own meaning, no one would understand anyone because we would all have diff intentional meanings
Constructionist Approach (hall’s view)
meaning is constructed through language and systems of representation
Saussure’s Theory = the foundation of how Hall understands representation
the sign is made up of 2 parts
1. signifier: the form (word, sound, image)
ex: the word ‘tree’
2. signified: the concept or idea it refers to
ex: image of a tree
the relationship between the signifier and signified is arbitrary and learned
the animal is not naturally called “cat” only a cat b/c english speakers agreed
Saussure also sad that meaning does NOT come from what it is but what it isn’t → language is a system of difference
“Black” means Black because it is not White
“Hot” means hot because it is not cold
discourse
the surrounding conversation around a topic
things that contribute to this conversation include
1. institutions
2. practices (what people are doing now, what is considered normal)
3. knowledge (what is accepted as the truth)
the discourse of gender determines what it means to be a “man” and “woman”
michel focault argues that knowledge and power are inseparable. whoever controls discourse also controls what is seen as true.
ex: madness in the 19th century was defined by doctors as a medical condition. this discourse gave psychiatrists power to confine people
Hall says stereotyping is a main representational practice of power
a stereotype reduces people to a few exaggerated traits and makes difference see biologically natural. they simplify complex identities, reinforce social hierarchies (by defining normal and abnormal).
representation always involves inclusion and exclusion
who gets represented and who is invisible?
Lecture 6 (Stuart Hall Chapter 1)
representation - “the production of meaning through language”
reflective: meaning is in the object
intentional: the author implies the meaning
constructive: we construct the meaning
Semiotics (Saussure)
“the study of signs and their general role as vehicles of meaning in culture”
like language, cultures use signs to communicate meaning
sign
signifier → the trigger
signified → the result
denotation: the descriptive element of a text/scene, most people would agree (an apple looks red and green)
connotation: the broader meaning of a sign/scene, we may contest these meanings (may agree that an apple is red and green but differ on how good it is)
Myth - Barthes
“a traditional story, a widely held but (sometimes) false belief”
broad, ideological themes that connect to broader culture.
ex: capitalism is good, it may not be true but it is widely believed
Ideology*** (ON TEST)
a system of ideas and ideals that form a basis of economic or political thought/policy
must have substance under it, able to be explained
Discourse/Discursive Formation
when people all support the same thing (e.g. gun rights are hard to fight against because there is no institutional power backing on the opposing side)
Power
capability to influence (or direct) the behavior of others or the course of events
Hegemony
winning consent of the other groups in society to view the world a certain way
essentially, getting someone to follow you even though you fail usually because there is such a large power imbalance theres nothing you can do
e.g. rural farmers voted for trump (and continue to) despite his failures
Patricia Hill Collins Reading 1 (part 1)
epistemology
standpoint theory
epistemology: the theory of knowledge, how we know what we know, what counts as the truth, etcetera
Collins argues that traditional (Eurocentric) epistemologies privilege White, male, elite perspectives which — in turn — dilute or exclude BW’s experiences
Black feminist epistemology develops an alternative way of knowing (rooted in lived experience, empathy, etc.)
diff way of producing and validating knowledge
whoever controls representation also controls what becomes truth (and eventually, history)
BW’s perspectives are suppressed and devalued because elite white men control universities, publishing and media
BW’s knowledge has historically been produced and spread outside formal institutions
music (blues, gospel)
storytelling and oral history
everyday convos
activism
Standpoint Theory
a standpoint = a social position from which people see and understand the world
BW’s standpoint is shaped by intersecting oppressions (race, gender, class, etc) which ultimately gives rise to their unique set of experiences
Patricia Hill Collins Reading 1 (part 2)
epistemology systems (eurocentric and black feminist)
2 Major Epistemology Systems
Eurocentric
Black Feminist Epistemology
Eurocentric
academia, government, media and publishing has long defined what is the truth
when Black or female scholars enter these spaces, they face pressure to conform to the dominant rules of “objectivity”
2 Political Criteria In Knowledge Validation
1. Expert Evaluation - claims must be approved by elite, mostly white male experts
2. Cultural Credibility - ideas must align with broader societal beliefs
Suppression of BW’s Knowledge
BW have been denied literacy, higher education, faculty positions and their ideas were often rejected for not meeting “scientific” standards
Token Inclusion
institutions may accept a few “safe” Black Women who reinforce mainstream views and those who challenge the dominant assumptions are punished
Positivism
belief that valid knowledge must be objective, quantifiable
Positivist Criteria
1. Distance: researcher must separate itself from subjects
2. Emotionless objectivity: feelings are bias
3. Value free science: ethics and empathy are excluded
4. Adversarial debate: knowledge arises from argument NOT connection
these methods alienate BW by forcing researchers to detach themselves from communities’ feelings, rejecting emotional and ethical insights
Black Feminist Epistemology
1. Lived Experience as the foundation of credibility
2. Use of a Dialogue in Assessing Knowledge (dialogue implies talk between the 2 subjects. knowledge grows through dialogue and community)
3. Ethic of Caring (emotions, empathy and personal expressiveness are integral to knowing and truth telling)
3 components: personal uniqueness (each person matters), emotions as evidence (feeling deeply means you are = committed to the truth) and empathy (understanding and valuing another’s experience)
4. Ethic of Personal Accountability (knowledge claims are evaluated not just on logic but the character of the knower as well)
Black Feminist Knowledge Validation
1. Everyday BW: the community whose experiences give meaning to the knowledge
2. BW Intellectuals: academics and writers
3. Dominant Institutions: universities, publishers, though they often require conformity to eurocentric standards
there is a struggle between gaining legitimacy and staying true to epistemological traditions (sharing info through blues music, etc.)
the truths?
there is no universal truth. all knowledge comes from a standpoint and each group’s truths are different but equally valid.
we do not have to “decenter” one group to center another. rather, we can shift focus so we can see standpoints from multiple perspectives.
bell hooks reading 2 (part 1)
bell hooks feminist theory and critique of “Feminine Mystique”
rebrand of feminism by Bourgeois Women
bell hooks argues that feminism in the U.S. has not emerged from the women most oppressed by sexism - Black Women
rather, the feminist movement has largely been shaped by middle and upper class white woman
core argument
to build a feminist theory that truly liberates all women, we must center the lives and struggles of the most oppressed (black women)
Critique of Betty Friedan + “Feminine Mystique”
Betty Friedan is often credited with launching the second-wave of feminism
she describes “the problem that has no name” → white middle class housewives getting bored with the domestic life but neglected to mention the majority of women (Black women who had always worked and working-class women who could not afford to stay at home)
hooks argues early feminist theory ignores how class and race shape women’s lives. white women universalized their own experience, erasing their differences.
white woman claim → “all women are oppressed”
bell hooks argues this is an oversimplification
all women may experience sexism but the degree to which and the nature of oppression vary depending on race, class, and sexuality
saying “all women are oppressed” lets privileged women avoid confronting their own racism and privilege and centers THEIR suffering as a representative of all women
distinction
oppression = absence of choices. a black women in poverty faces NO choices.
exploitation / discrimination =limited but existent choices.
a white woman restricted by gender norms but secure financially experiences limited choices.
the “sisterhood” and “unity” stuff marked class differences and allowed privileged White woman to dominate the movement. they’re the ones who had the resources to host these large events.
Rebrand of Feminism by Bourgeois Women
feminism rebranded as “equal access to power” rather than “structural change”
“dressing for success” = women becoming executives and CEO’s and they became symbols of empowerment
bourgeois feminism → feminism that seeks equality with elite men
bell hooks reading 2 (part 2)
U.S. feminism is build on the ideology of liberal individualism.. the belief that freedom means competing as individuals rather than transforming society collectively
this ideology centers the individual woman’s success instead of collective liberation
Silencing and Dogmatism within Feminism
hooks critiques how feminism developed a “party line”
a set of dominant ideas policed by elite white woman
those who questioned it were dismissed
bell hooks says theory must remain in progress, open to critique
BW’s Standpoint
hooks explains that BW developed feminist consciousness through lived experience not academic theory
White Women Condescension + Racism
White woman treated her as a guest in “their” movement
they sought her stories of Black life but reserved the right to authenticate them
‘real’ Blackness was defined through racist stereotypes
Myth → “Strong Black Women”
white women often projected stereotypes onto BW
Interlocking Systems of Oppression
bell hooks emphasizes sexism, racism and classism are interconnected NOT separate
white woman → oppressed by sexism / privileged by race
white men → most privileged
black women → oppressed by both
black men → oppressed by race / privileged by sexism
Lecture 8
bell hooks (standpoint theory and critique of feminst theory)
patricia hill collins (epistemology systems (eurocentric and black feminist)
history of Black feminism
NOT an outgrowth of mainstream or white feminism
NOT antagonistic towards Black men
refuses to choose between the effects of racism and sexism on the lives of Black Women
Sojourner Truth, Anna Julia cooper, Ida B Wells, Mary Church terrell
these proto-feminists were largely concerned with the stereotypes and mischaracterizations of BW
ex: people believed BW just wanted sex → sexual violence against them
many wanted to be included in the definition of women (something not allowed to enslaved women)
Anna Julia Cooper
the 1st BW to get a P.h.D
argues BW are the people around which policies should be centered
Sojourner Truth
formerly enslaved; spoke out against why she was not considered a woman (b/c she was a slave)
Ida Wells
journalist that went to every Southern state and asked people whether they knew anyone who was lynched
Mary Church terrell
teacher first then joined the movement
Club Women of 1890s-1930s
engaged in cultural uplift through education
activists against lynching and rape
founders of NACW and NAACP
Feminist Movement and Civil Rights Leaders of 1940s-1960s
worked tirelessly for voting rights while facing sexism within the movement
many women were behind the scenes while men were upfront
Activist Movements 1970s-1980s
at the forefront of establishing Black studies and WGS programs
outspoken about reproductive rights and sexual violence
Intellectual Academic Consolidation 1990s-2010s
primarily academic formation
lot of studies surrounding BW
Current
from the intellectual consolidation, things like Black Queer Theory and Black Studies are emerging
Black feminism
the articulation of those who are most oppressed. speak truth about their experiences. centers the lives and experiences of BW.
Patricia Hill Collins
Standpoint theory (liberal individualism - an individual will always have certain rights) / Black Feminist Theorist / Hegemonic Dominance (of white woman’s views)
calls the conditions of U.S. society the “matrix of domination”
bell hooks
oppressive structures. argues that middle class white women centering themselves in feminism discourse has pushed many women to the side. names the system we live in → “White Supremacist Capitalist Heteropatriarchy”
Combahee River Collective Reading 3
interlocked oppression and identity politics
“if black women are free, it would mean everyone else would have to be free since their (BW’s) freedom would necessitate the destruction of all systems of oppression”
origin of name
named after Harriet Tubman’s military raid
CRC members wanted a movement that addressed the totality of their experience as a Black, female, working class, etc.
the signature concept: interlocking systems of oppression*** (connect to patricia hill collins matrix of domination)
CRC’s Core Beliefs
a) value BW’s lives. only BW themselves care enough to fight for their liberation.
b) Identity politics. organizing around the shared experience of one’s own identity (black womanhood)
c) Interlocking oppression
d) Solidarity with Black Men → solidarity with black men against racism but refused to excuse sexism
e) socialism → CRC identified as socialists. they refused capitalism because it profits from exploitation of the poor but recognize that socialism alone will not free BW.
f) Racism + Capitalism = Personal experience
g) Lesbianism → rejected any kind of claim that biology determines oppression
Problems Organizing Black
a) Marginalization and Isolation - resistance from Black men and white feminists
b) Lack of Resources
c) Conflicts - black liberation group accused them of dividing the race while the white feminists accused them of making it (sexual violence? feminism) about race
Kimberle Crenshaw Reading 4
Issue of Single-Axis thinking
society treats race and gender as mutually exclusive
feminist theory often centers around White women and anti-racist policies around Black men
in the single axis it says discrimination is happening on one dimension (race OR sex) but cannot explain how BW experience both
Case 1: Degraffenreid vs. GM
5 BW sued GM for layoffs and hiring discrimination
Court’s ruling → the woman could not sue, they could either bring a race case or gender case but not both
Crenshaw thoughts: erases intersectional discrimination
Case 2: Moore v. Hughes Helicopters
BW alleged discrimination in promotions. sought to represent all women employees in a class action lawsuit
Courts ruling → she could not represent white women.
Crenshaw’s thoughts: court assumed sex discrimination equals white women’s experience so anything other than that is seen as a form of different or lesser form of discrimination
Case 3: Payne v Travenol
2 black women sued for race discrimination seeking to represent all Black employees
Court’s ruling → only allowed them to represent BW not Black men due to a conflict of interest
Thoughts? when BW claim race discrimination, the court treats their gender as a reason to disqualify but when BW claim gender discrimination, the court treats their race as a reason to disqualify
anti-discrimination law is designed for white women or black men. compares intersectionality to a traffic section.
feminist theory + black women
feminist theory excludes black women (think about BW and work)
Lecture 9 (CRC + Kimberle Crenshaw)
Kimberle Crenshaw
lawyer, activist
major player in the critical race theory
coined “intersectionality”. became used to describe how Black women became invisible in the legal system.
Intersectionality has predecessors!
the matrix of domination (Patricia)
White Supremacist Capitalist Heteropatriarchy (bell hooks)
Intersectionality is an approach NOT an identity
not additive or the “oppression olympics”
applies specifically to the legal system and is an analytic (you can take smth, put intersectionality over it and analyze it) AND method (can be used in research)
GM Case
congress did not intend (or imagine) a BW could exist
Helicopter Case
BW cannot represent all women b/c if they did they’d have to admit white woman are a race (seen as just White right now)
Travenol
assumes men do not have a gender only women do because they deviate from the norm
CRC
members first active in National Black Feminist Org but left
organized for desegregation and against sexual violence
freedom addresses “all interlocking systems of oppression” which to CRC includes racism/sexism/classism/homophobia
Stuart Hall Chapter 4 Reading 1 (part 1)
key questions
main claim
Key Questions
why do we represent people as “different"?
what work does “difference” do in culture?
how do representations of difference relate to power?
Hall’s Main Claim
difference is essential to meaning, culture, and identity — but it’s also the site of power and exclusion
so, difference is necessary for meaning and identification (we know what smth is by knowing what it is not) BUT it also produces hierarchies (abnormal vs. normal)
Why “Difference” Matters
Hall outlines 4 perspectives that explain why difference is so central to culture
Stuart Hall Chapter 4 Reading 1 (part 2)
the 4 perspectives
The 4 Perspectives
A. Linguistic Approach (Saussure)
meaning is created through binary oppositions (White/Black, Male/Female, etc.)
each term gains meaning from its difference with the other
ex: ‘Black’ only means something because it is contrasted with ‘White’
white often resembles purity while Black is its symbolic opposite (evil). the structure of this difference, whether black or white is symbolic to evil/good is determined by structures of power and turn into hierarchies
B. Anthropological Approach
culture requires boundaries, a sense of “us” vs “them”
outsiders help a group define what it means to belong
ex: Europeans defined themselves as civilized by constructing colonized people as savage. difference is central to how cultures imagine themselves.
this also stabilizes a culture’s identity by showing what it is not but also at the cost of dehumanizing the ‘them (or other group)’ they are comparing themselves too
C. Psychoanalytic Approach
difference provokes desire and fear
the “other” fascinates us but also threatens to destabilize our identity → this tension is called ambivalence
ex: colonial imagery sexualizes AND degrades Black bodies. desire and disgust co-exist. white people want to dominate them but also exclude them.
D. Dialogic Approach
meaning is always produced in dialogue, in the interaction between the self and Other
but language and culture are always changing so meaning shifts every time a word/image is used in a new context
the difference in meaning is produced and reproduced through interaction
ex: the term “Black” has changed over time from an insult to a political identity
each use changes the term’s meaning and each group fights to control its meaning
dominant groups try to “fix” the meaning while marginalized groups resist by re-voicing it
E. Discourse and Power Approach
discourses do not just describe reality, they produce it. they define who can speak, what counts as the truth and who gets represented.
ex: the discourse of scientific racism (e.g. measuring skulls) did not just study differences rather it created racial hierarchies. this skull is more normal so its superior and this one looks weird so its abnormal.
“truths” are socially constructed and maintained through media, education, etc.
Stuart Hall Chapter 4 Reading 1 (part 3)
stereotyping
the “Other”
power and representation
Stereotyping and the “Other”
a stereotype reduces people to a few exaggerated/essentialized characteristics which are represented as ‘fixed’
How? a few traits are selected and exaggerated. it defines difference as essential and unchangeable.
Key Effects? fixation → meaning becomes frozen, preventing diversity or complexity. exclusion → those who do not fit the norm are cast as “abnormal”. power → stereotyping justifies inequality by naturalizing social hierarchies (people start to see the hierarchies as normal).
Power and Representation
power’s goal: dominant groups try to fix the meaning to what they want it to be through media, institutions they define what is abnormal and normal.
resistance: the colonized can also “look back” and redefine dominant images*** (connection to bell hooks oppositional gaze)
Fetishism / Disavowal / Fantasy
Fetishism
obsession over certain features. makes the whole person about that one feature.
racial stereotypes can operate as fetishes.
Disavowal
the process of knowing something but denying it at the same time (e.g. “I know Black people are hard workers but I would never hire them”)
Fantasy
representations of difference often reveal unconscious fantasies
Difference, Power, and the “The Politics of Representation”
difference is necessary for meaning and identity but it can also be a tool that makes other groups feel inferior (or superior)
Marginalized Groups Can Resist Stereotypes
reversing stereotypes - turn negative into something good (“Black is Beautiful)*** connection to digital alchemy Moya Bailey
positive images - replace harmful images with positive ones though that may oversimplify them
deconstruct representation - expose how stereotypes work
Lecture 10 (Stuart Hall Chapter 4)
reasons for diff
plantation life, empire/commodities, naturalizing diff, regime of representation, trans-coding, fantasy and fetishization, hegemony
Reasons for Difference
exists because it’s necessary for meaning (think about dialogue and binary opposites)
exists because of classification and the symbolic order of things (anthropology)
exists because of unconscious relations in our psychic life (psychoanalytic)
we all have unresolved issues on an individual and societal level. the issue on a societal level is sexuality.
Key Concepts
plantation life and binaries
the U.S. regime of representation remains based on plantation life
it relies on the binary between White and Black to justify racism and racial inequality
ZERO sum logic → if Black people win then White people are losing
we have never gotten rid of this binary / comparison about who’s race is better. everything about our logic is based on this binary. the devil = Black, God = White.
Empire and Commodity
since the beginning of European expansion, White plantation owners have utilized commodities to justify racism. to justify racism, plantation owners believed that Black people were NOT human making them something that could be purchased so it was less offensive.
created a regime of representation that placed people of color as less than (because they could be bought) and took control of the representation
Naturalizing Difference
no genetic basis for race. race is a social construct and ideology to justify the dehumanization and selling of Black people.
sex is on a continuum. culture, early experiences, environment play a major role in socialization.
by naturalizing difference (meaning making something seem as a result of biological factors), we locate the problem inside the people rather than the structures in society
Regime of Representation
having the symbolic and political power to represent others and control the way those representations are made
if you are in control of your regime of representation, you can control what people see / think / believe / say
Trans-Coding
utilizing existing meanings to create new meanings
e.g. when you turn something racism into something funny kind of like digital alchemy
Difference and Sexuality
exoticization of difference can lead to the exoticization of sexuality
portrays “the other” as unusual or unique. glamorizes or romanticizes. dismisses the actual person and turns them into an object.
Fantasy and Fetishization
originally, fetishes were objects that were considered to have magical powers because they were inhabited by spirits. in this class, fetishization is to involve a person or group with “magical” powers. to fetishize an “other” sexually means to imbue that person (or group) with magical sexual powers that fulfill the fantasy of the stereotype created around them.
Hegemony
leadership or dominance by one group or country over others. CLASS is central.
hegemony means how the ruling class maintains control over society not just by force, but by shaping what people think and believe through media and institutions. people consent to this because they see it as “normal” (b/c of the way the dominant group has a hold on representation)
the ruling class has the money and the means to keep their regime of representation in place.
bell hooks reading 2
the politics of looking: slavery to cinema
the oppositional gaze
early black spectatorship
black male gaze vs black female gaze
cinematically gaslighted
resistance
context and purpose
BW’s relation to looking (being looked at and looking back) is shaped by racism and slavery
The Politics of Looking: Slavery to Cinema
punishing the Black Gaze
in slavery, enslaved people were punished for looking at White masters, looking was seen as an act of defiance.
the denial of the right to look produced a “rebellious desire to look”. hooks calls this resistant looking “the oppositional gaze’
looking as a resistance - to look back was to claim agency even under domination
“The Oppositional Gaze”
a resistant way of seeing developed by Black people, specifically BW, in response to dominant white images that aim to erase or distort them.
it means..
a) looking critically rather than passively consuming
b) refusing identification with racist/sexist images
c) using the act of looking itself as an act of rebellion
Early Black Spectatorship and Media
Black families used to watch Hollywood films knowing they restated ideas of White supremacy
to watch TV or film was to confront the negation of Black life
Black people laughed at these racist portrayals but also analyzed and criticized them. this everyday critique became “critical spectatorship”
spectators discussed/analyzed while watching
The Black Male vs. Black Female Gaze
the Black Male → because Black men were lynched or killed for looking at White woman, the cinema offered a space to ‘look without punishment’. this reproduces patriarchal looking even when rebelling against racism, the male gaze remains sexist.
the Black Female → BW were excluded from representation. and when shown they were objects of scorn and embodied one of the many stereotypes.
Gaslighting by Cinema
many BW suggested critique to enjoy movies. to feel pleasure, they had to forget racism and ignore sexism. hooks calls this being “cinematically gaslighted” and Hollywood pushed them to desire what devalued them.
Resistance
many women chose NOT to look at or watch these movies. they start to engage in critical spectatorship.
many Black Women do not write their theories because they don’t think they will be heard or taken seriously.
The “oppositional gaze” is a counter to hegemony*** (connect to Stuart Hall)
Lecture 11 (bell hooks “the oppositional gaze”)
spectatorship
identification
the gaze
agency
oppositional gaze
intertextuality
ethnocentrism
bell hooks takes a critical “look” at how Black people are represented in pop culture, how they interact with those representations and how we can critically engage with representation
Key Concepts
Spectatorship
the act of watching a film, game or show
in film theory, it is a process rather than a fixed role. spectators can be passive or active.
complicated by the film → what they are trying to get the audience to identify with
Identification
psychoanalytic term that suggests we have the capacity to empathize or relate to others, sometimes to a fault
over identification = take on someone else’s goal
in film theory, this means we are viewing the film from the perspective of a certain character
films are constructed to encourage identification with certain characters. the problem is, these characters are often influenced by stereotypes so if you do end up empathizing or identifying with that character then you are unknowingly believing in those stereotypes.
in passive spectatorship, spectators do not have a choice but to accept the film makers perspective.
in active spectatorship, spectators may identify with, reject, or negotiate identification.
negotiating would be like, “I do not like her but her hair is cute”
“the gaze”
the gaze is the perspective from which a film-maker constructs a film. most films are written from the gaze of White men.
this gaze forces the spectator to “see” a film from a particular point of view. Laura Mulvey (who originally theorized this concept) argued this causes a crisis for women spectators b/c each time we view a film, we have to identify with the male gaze.
on the other hand, hooks argues Mulvey does not take into consideration how Black spectators often reject or negotiate the gaze of a film.
Agency
“action or intervention, especially to produce a particular effect”
in critical theories, agency is one way to describe how individuals and communities negotiate power. agency is dynamic.
Oppositional Gaze
hooks argues BW spectators can deploy an oppositional gaze to demonstrate agency AND refusal to identify with “the gaze” of a given film
this is because BW understand the differences between how they are represented in films and how they actually are
the oppositional gaze is in response to the absence of BW ‘gaze’ in films
the oppositional gaze only emerges when BW spectators make an intentional choice to engage critically w/ forms of racism and reject identification of characters
DISCUSSION TERMS
intertextuality
accumulation of meanings across diff texts and how texts interact with one another
ethnocentrism
application of one’s culture norms to another because you believe your culture is superior
Patricia Hill Collins Reading (part 1)
stereotypes and binary oppositions
Collins argues that racism, sexism and oppression are maintained through “controlling images”
these images may also change how BW see themselves and how society sees BW
these stereotypes (e.g. Mammy) are part of a set of beliefs that justifies power differences
in other words, they hide structural inequality by blaming Black individuals
the objectification of BW as the “Other”
the enslaved BW became the symbolic opposite of what White / Male / Western culture defined as civilized, pure, rational
Patricia identifies binary oppositions (pairs of opposites) at the foundation of Western thought
White / Black, Male / Female, Civilized / Primitive, Logical / Emotional
BW occupy the ‘inferior’ category in almost each binary
to objectify is to reduce someone to a thing or instrument and BW were objectified as property*** (connection to matrix of domination in another Collins reading)
Patricia Hill Collins Reading (part 2)
5 stereotypes
The Mammy
the mammy is the faithful, obedient and asexual Black servant who cares more about the white family than her own
purpose: to justify BW’s domestic servitude and economic exploitation under slavery
she ‘loves’ her white employers children better than her own and knows her place
economic function: the Mammy made the exploitation of BW’s labor seem natural. white families could maintain comfort b/c BW did their domestic work for them and they felt no guilt.
cultural function: portrayed as asexual and maternal to contain fears of BW’s sexuality.
The Matriarch
the “bad” Black mother → dominant, unfeminine, problematic
claims that strong BW emasculated men and caused poverty and broken families
function
shifts blame for poverty from racism to BW
suggests Black families are ‘dysfunctional’
intersectional
gender → labels BW as ‘unfeminine’
race → labels Black people as ‘inferior’
class → blames BW for any economic hardship
The Welfare Queen
a modern image that paints poor Black single mothers as lazy, irresponsible, and dependent on government aid
function
justifies cuts to welfare programs
economic logic
under slavery, BW’s fertility was exploited (breeder woman image)
under capitalism, poor BW’s fertility became a threat (too many unproductive children)
The Black Lady
the respectable, educated, middle-class BW
surface positive/underlying control
appears admirable but BW are expected to work twice as hard, remain emotionally stable and suppress sexuality
political function
reinforce stereotypes that successful BW are “too strong”, “too independent” or “cannot get a man”
The Jezebel / Hoochie Mama
Jezebel (slavery) and Hoochie Mama (modern version) depict BW as hypersexual, immoral and promiscuous
under slavery, Jezebel was used to rationalize the sexual assault of enslaved women. “they wanted it”.
function
policies sexuality - defines BW’s sexual expression as deviant
reinforces white women’s purity - Jezebel is the opposite of pure
intersectionality
race → Black sexuality = dangerous
gender → used to discipline all women’s sexual behavior
class → Hoochie associated with poor women
Controlling Images in Institutions
A. Schools and Academic
treat all Black girls as the problem (hypersexual, etc.)
B. Media/Pop Culture
C. Government and Law
court cases *** (connection to those authors)
D. Black Community
Black churches praise women as the “backbone” but silence their leadership
BW are told their unity to their race is more important than gender equality
Colorism = preference for European features (light skin, etc.)
3 Reactions
suspended woman: trapped by stereotypes
assimilated women: deny Blackness to gain acceptance
emergent women: develop self definition and resistance
Patricia Hill Collins Reading 2 (part 1)
there has been longstanding silence about BW’s sexuality, why?
1 Suppression by Dominant Institutions
BW’s voices have been excluded from positions of power. white-controlled institutions define BW as sexualized yet voiceless (invisible).
2 Silence within Black Scholars
in Black studies and academic circles, these often center around men’s perspectives. BW’s sexuality is either ignored or discussed only as it affects men. with White women, they are just compared by saying “BW have it worse”.
the result? BW never get to speak for themselves!
3 The “last taboo”
its taboo to discuss sexual violence on BW from Black men
it violates “racial solidarity”
4 The “Culture of Dissemblance”
a strategy where BW present a public image of respectability and openness but keep their inner opinions hidden
silence became a defense mechanism; pretending not to have sexual desires became a way to reclaim privacy and dignity in a racist society that constantly violates their bodies.
5 Marginalization
Black lesbian theorists exposed homophobia within Black feminist movements
contributions were marginalized b/c Black communities avoided talking about sexuality
Patricia Hill Collins Reading 2 (part 2)
Case Study - Anita Hill vs Clarence Thomas
Anita accused Clarence of sexual violence
both were Black and middle-class
Reactions
white feminists: focused on the sexual harassment. found race irrelevant.
black communities: prioritized racial solidarity
black women: stuck in between
collins redefines sexuality as a socially constructed site of power
Heterosexism as System of Power
heterosexism = belief in the inherent superiority of homosexuality + the right to dominate other sexualities
society defines anything other than heterosexual as “abnormal”
Collins identifies 4 Systems that Control BW Sexualities
A. Capitalism and Commodification
B. Racism and “Racial Purity”
racism is naturalized and BW’s sexuality are treated as public property
C. Good Girl / Bad Girl
all BW, regardless of behavior, are placed in the “bad girl” category
D. State’s Role
the gov regulates sexuality through policies on welfare, abortion and reproductive health. poor BW’s sexuality is seen as public property while White middle class families are afforded privacy and respect.
Pornography
enslaved BW were forced into pornographic roles (rape for profit, exhibition of naked bodies)
ex: Sarah Baartman
porn originated from the objectification of BW’s bodies
in contemporary porn, BW are often portrayed as submissive, wild/savage, etc.
Jezebel stereotype justifies prostitution and results in (almost) this expectation for BW to sell sex
Rape/Sexual Violence
rape was a central weapon to slavery used to dominate and dehumanize
Black Male rapist = justified lynchings, Black Female prostitute = justifies rape of BW
together these systems created oppression from all slides
reclaim the Erotic
when self-defined, the erotic becomes a sense of power
Lecture 13 (Patricia Hill Collins → Stereotypes, Case study Anita Hill)
how do the representation of BW’s sexuality influence BW throughout their lives?
sets expectations for young Black girls and the people around them
casts them as promiscuous
refuses agency for BW coming into their own sexuality & limits the options to heterosexual
Why are BW largely silent about their own sexuality?
shame, fear, lack of access to info, protecting men within Black communities (racial solidarity)
Where are the largest silences?
sexual harassment and assault within Black communities (child sexual assault, in churches/families), interracial relationships, pleasure
How is this a question of power?
controlling reproduction of BW meant you controlled enslaved populations in slavery
in Jim Crow and after, you could control the population of Black people
Eugenics, Planned Parenthood
controlling images of BW’s sexuality provides justifications for sexual assault and devaluation of BW socially
DISCUSSION
binary thinking - how we categorize people and places and things into oppositional categories
Sexual politics of Black Womanhood
how sexuality and power become linked in the representation and construction of BW’s sexualities
heterosexism
the belief that heterosexuality is dominant and better than all the other sexualities
Jane Rhodes Reading 1
the great migration
politics of respectability
elite black press vs. popular black press
cinema as a medium
The Great Migration and the “New Negro” Era
Americans moved from the rural south to northern cities in search of employment and freedom from Jim Crow violence
Northern elites worried that poor, rural migrants might damage the race’s reputation through unrefined behavior
respectability became a defense against racism and a tool of class control within Black communities
The Politics of Respectability
Black elites’ emphasis on moral conduct, cleanliness, sexual restraint as a means of racial uplift
aimed ot counter stereotypes of Black immorality and promiscuity
dual use (resistance + regulation)
resistance = asserted Black dignity against White supremacy and helped BW reclaim agency
regulation = imposed middle class gender norms on poor migrants
for formerly enslaved women, chastity was used to represent moral recovery from the sexual abuse under slavery
The Elite Black Press
the Crisis was used to promote the image of educated, moral BW
tried to fight racial stereotypes with images of dignified BW
The Popular Black Press
unlike elite journals, these weeklies reached working class migrants and their mission was to treat newcomers how to behave
for men → avoid drunkenness, aggression, fighting, etc
for women → be modest, pure, etc
Respectability and Protection Narratives
respectability also function as self-defense
stories in The Defender warned woman of the dangers of sexual violence, reinforced modesty for women.
advice columns often posed respectability as a women’s duty but men were expected to be not as composed
Cinema as Visual Medium
early Black films countered racist Hollywood depictions of Black people
the Birth of A Nation (film)
depicted a modest schoolteacher who dresses conservatively and resits temptation
exposed white male sexual violence against BW
The Scar of Shame
straying from respectability leads to social death
Respectability is a teaching method (pedagogy) and a politics
newspapers, media, magazines, films were all informal classrooms for new migrants
Hazel Carby Policing the Black Woman’s Body in an Urban Context
“Naïve Black Migrant”
Moral Panic
Frances Kellor
Phillis Wheatley Association
The Blues
The Great Migration
Black Americans left the rural South for northern cities
The Myth of the “Naïve Black Migrant”
Reformers and journalists described southern migrants (especially women) as “ignorant,” and “helpless” and unprepared for city life and easily drawn into prostitution and “vice.”
Carby critiques this moral mythology, which made urban Black women seem like the problem rather than subjects of structural inequality
The Concept of Moral Panic
a moral panic happens when a group is labeled as a threat to social values, prompting media, reformers and politicians to call for “control” and surveillance
Migrant Black women became the “folk devils” → blamed for crime, vice, and moral decline
used that to justify institutional control over women’s bodies
Frances Kellor and the White Reform Gaze
Frances A. Kellor: white Progressive-era reformer, director of the Inter-Municipal Committee on Household Research, concerned with immigrants and domestic labor. Described Black women migrants as lazy, inefficient, immoral, and prone to prostitution.
Her Solution?
1. Missionaries / mentors to “guide” and “befriend” BW
2. Supervised housing like controlled lodging houses to keep women off the sreets
3. Training schools to make them “efficient” domestics
these were they were systems of surveillance to control Black women’s movements, sexuality, and labor
The Black Middle Class and Internal Policing
Carby argues that Black elites internalized and replicated these same moral fears
Migration caused upheaval — new class divisions and fears about “respectable” Black citizenship.
Black reformers and clubwomen joined the project of disciplining working-class women to preserve racial “respectability.”
ex: Jane Edna Hunter and the Phillis Wheatley Association
Jane was born enslaved but founded the Phillis Wheatley Association to provide housing and training for BW
This association trained girls for domestic service — teaching them to be “happy” and “devoted” to white employers.
Sexuality, Urban Fear, and the Threat of Independence
The independent, migrating Black woman symbolized freedom but also danger.
Reformers feared her mobility and autonomy — her ability to move through the city unchaperoned.
Reformers targeted dance halls and nightclubs as sites of moral collapse
Alternative Voices
Despite reformers’ fears, blues singers and vaudeville women found autonomy and mobility through performance.
Work in music offered “clean” jobs (not domestic service) and escape from poverty.
The Urban Blues as Cultural Resistance
The urban blues culture was a counter to the politics of respectability.
Darlene Clark Hine, Rape and the Inner Lives of BW in the Middle West (part 1)
Rape and Sexual Vulnerability in Historical Perspective
Migration as Resistance
Sexual Control and Autonomy: The Struggle for Self-Definition
the culture of dissemblance
Historians have long studied lynching as a central symbol of racial oppression (focusing on Black men as victims).
But rape — the sexual violence and threat endured by Black women — was rarely analyzed as central to Black oppression
She argues that Black women’s experiences of sexual terror, domestic violence, and economic exploitation profoundly shaped:
Their migration patterns
Their community activism
Their inner emotional and psychological lives.
The Core Argument
The constant threat of rape and sexual exploitation produced a culture of dissemblance among Black women — a behavioral and emotional strategy that concealed the truth of their inner lives from a hostile society.
Definition
Outwardly, Black women performed respectability — appearing calm, moral, and controlled.
Inwardly, they guarded their real emotions, desires, and trauma to preserve dignity and psychological safety.
It was a mask of protection, not deception — a survival mechanism against a society that dehumanized them.
Rape and Sexual Vulnerability in Historical Perspective
Antebellum Roots
Enslaved women were legally UNPROTECTED from sexual assault.
Legacy of Exploitation
Even after emancipation, stereotypes of Black women as sexually available or immoral (the Jezebel myth) justified ongoing sexual abuse by white men and police.
Domestic servants endured both economic exploitation and sexual coercion.
Migration as Resistance
BW left the south to escape sexual exploitation both from White men and from abuse within their own communities
Migration was a quest for autonomy, safety, and control over one’s body and labor.
Sexual Control and Autonomy: The Struggle for Self-Definition
“Adversarial” Relationship with Society
Hine argues that the core of Black women’s historical experience has been a struggle over control of their bodies, labor, and reproduction — fought against white men, white women, and often Black men.
this forced BW to develop secrecy and resilience
Double Meaning of Secrecy
Secrecy allowed inner strength and self-respect in a racist world.
But it also invisibilized their experiences for historians — making it difficult to access women’s emotional lives in archives or public narratives.
The “Culture of Dissemblance”
Creating a public façade of modesty, religiosity, or “respectable womanhood.”
Avoiding discussions of sexuality or rape even within their own communities.
Withholding personal letters, diaries, or testimonies
Protective vs. Limiting
The culture of dissemblance protected women from psychological and physical harm. Yet it also allowed racist and sexist myths (like Jezebel, Mammy) to fill the public imagination because silence created a void that others misrepresented.
Darlene Clark Hine, Rape and the Inner Lives of BW in the Middle West (part 2)
NACW
“super morality”
respectability as a politics of protection
consequences
NACW and Institutionalized Respectability
The NACW embodied the culture of dissemblance at an organizational level.
Goals
1) Combat racist stereotypes of Black female immorality.
2) Provide community aid
3) Promote education, respectability, and self-help.
To counter sexual stereotypes, many Black women leaders suppressed their own sexuality — emphasizing purity, chastity, and moral superiority.
This “super-morality” became a form of protest: redefining themselves as virtuous citizens worthy of respect and citizenship rights**** (connection to Phillis Wheatley Association which tried to teach working class women domestic skills for economic survival and moral protection)
Respectability became a politics of protection → a way for BW to protect themselves in a society that did nothing to help them. as a result, it influenced patriarchal gender norms that limited freedom of sexual expression.
Consequences: New Black Womanhood & Changing Family Patterns
Declining Birth Rates → hine links the rise of BW’s clubs and urban reform to declining fertility
Single, educated BW → the community viewed them as guardians of race morality and symbols of racial uplift
Last Lecture (hazel carby, darlene clark hine, jane rhodes)
Jane Rhodes & Evelyn Higginbotham
Evelyn Higginbotham coined the "politics of respectability”
Hazel Carby & Darlene Clark Hine
Carby dives deeper into these politics by looking at the policing of Black Woman’s body
The Complex Terrain of Black Women’s Sexuality
History of Black women’s sexualization begins in slavery
Sexual violence and rape justified by assumptions of “animalistic” behavior of Black women
Black women, because they were considered property, could not be “raped” by their owners
The child follows the condition of its mother
even if the kid was light-skinned, if the other parent was Black they would be treated as such
Saartje Baartman - Black women’s bodies were on display as exotic, unusual and entertaining (hooks). This woman traveled the world allowing people to stare at her. Debate on whether she had a choice in this or not. After her death, part of her body was placed in a museum in France.
Example In Medical Practices
Enslaved Black women were the nonconsenting test subjects for the entire field of gynecology (studies the reproductive system)
ex: Anarcha Westcott, Lucy and Betsey
A white doctor took these women and performed unmedicated, unnecessary procedures on them.
Our medical knowledge is based on this and women in gynecology are expected to ‘take the pain’.
The sexualization continued even after the period of enslavement and was an intentional part of racial terrorism.
Recy Taylor was raped by six white men as she walked home from church. The men were never held accountable for their actions.
As poor Black families fled the racial violence of the South, Black middle and upper class already settled in the North expressed concern.
worried about literacy, “ignorance” and “lack of fitness” for citizen ship
worried about Black women becoming sex workers & the impression of animalistic Black sexuality
believed sexual violence was a result of Black sex workers when it was really about the society at the time ad how they viewed Black women (Carby)
The Core Issue -> WE CAN BE EASILY SEXUALLY VIOLATED WHAT CAN WE DO TO PROTECT OURSELVES?
As Black women in the South and North negotiated those environments, one response was to attempt to fashion themselves in a way that was considered “respectable” or worthy of respect. This was especially true among religious women (Rhodes).
Middle and Upper class Black people attempted to deal with this threat by policing poor Black people, and especially Black women, through boarding houses and morality programs (Carby, Rhodes).
have certain conditions the people in the boarding house have to abide by such as they cannot bring men back, have to learn how to read, etcetera.
Despite these efforts to “behave”, the sexualized and exploitative representations of Black women’s bodies meant Black women were still vulnerable to sexual violence AND have little control over their images (hooks, Carby, Rhodes).
This had a big impact on Black women and Black communities
Increased community and self-policing
example: no red lipstick, signals that you’re easy
Victim blaming for sexual violence
Politics of respectability – internal forms of shaming and policing Black people in an effort to prove white people “wrong” about racism.
also, forms of self fashioning that attempt to show morality and worth via projecting an image of dignity led to many forms of resistance for Black women.
Dissemblance (Hines) is the process by which Black women give the impression of openness to others while maintaining privacy in order to have sanity and “something for themselves”
Necessary for safety especially for Black domestic workers who relied on their employers’ comfort and approval
Necessary for cultivating an interiority that increased the sense of self-possession and worth
Bree Newsome climbed up the pole and took down the confederate flag after the mass shooting in Charleston
(jeopardy) emasculates and hates Black men stereotype?
Sapphire
(jeopardy) the modern version of Jezebel that originated under slavery?
Hoochie Mama
(jeopardy) Name all 7 of Patricia Hill Collin’s Controlling Images
Black Lady
Jezebel
Sapphire
The Mammy
Hoochie Mama
Welfare Queen
Matriarch
(jeopardy) Black Women refuse to look at a film through the gaze of a film-maker
oppositional gaze
(jeopardy) “If BW are free, everyone else would be too” who said that?
CRC → Combahee River Collective
(jeopardy) The “Other” is a specific position marked my marginalization. What 2 authors used this?
bell hooks
Stuart Hall
(jeopardy) what term describes how languages produce meaning with the science of signs NOT ideas?
Semiotics
(jeopardy) Controlling BW but NOT sexual?
The Matriarch
(jeopardy) Who invented digital alchemy and misogynoir?
Moya Bailey
(jeopardy) Define Welfare Queen
irresponsible mother, lots of children, manipulate the system for their own benefit
(jeopardy) category of artistic work characterized by similar styles?
Genre
(jeopardy) Who invented intersectionality?
Kimberle Crenshaw
(jeopardy) Asexual, Happy servant?
The Mammy
(jeopardy) Define “the theory of intersectionality”
race and gender both oppressing
(jeopardy) Who invented the oppositional gaze?
bell hooks
(essay prompt) After viewing a piece of media included in the midterm, in 3-5 paragraphs, tell me what issues you think would be important to analyze in this video in relation to Black women’s representation. What questions would you ask, what articles or readings would you use, and what claims would you make?
could talk about a stereotype, oppositional gaze, how is the person represented, politics of respectability, policing on BW’s bodies, etc.
(essay prompt) Discuss how the history of slavery, segregation, and racial terror shapes the present-day landscape of representations of Black women in U.S. media. How has the history of racism and sexism in the United States impacted how we see and represent Black women today?
the sexual violence BW had to experience in the rural south → led to great migration → houses like Phillip Wheatley Association led to surveillance on BW’s behavior + communities policing their bodies → magazines/newspapers trying to teach them how to behave → politics of respectability → culture of dissemblance → racial solidarity but also the legal system does not support their interlocking oppression (intersectionality) → term of misogynoir → digital alchemy
(essay prompt) Discuss how Patricia Hill Collins’ concept of “controlling images” and/or any of bell hooks’ concepts from “Selling Hot Pussy” and “Eating the Other” helps us to better understand and analyze the representation of Black women’s sexuality in popular media today. What are the preoccupations that U.S. spectators have with Black women’s sexuality, and what historical stereotypes are they based on?
the mammy, jezebel, sapphire, black lady, the matriarch, welfare queen, hoochie mama
fascination around the “other” and BW’s bodies
bell hooks (“Selling Hot Pussy”)
Hooks argues that Black female sexuality in popular culture is sold as a product, packaged for male (especially white) consumption.
“Selling hot pussy” refers to the hypersexualized image of Black womenunder the illusion of empowerment while really just reinforcing the patriarchy.
She critiques how even supposedly “liberated” sexual performances by Black women are commodities.
bell hooks (“Eating the Other”)
Hooks analyzes how white culture fetishizes racial “difference”, consuming Blackness as an exotic spice.
In fashion, film, and sexuality, difference becomes an erotic commodity
She warns that this “desire for the primitive” is not appreciation.
(essay prompt) Drawing from Patricia Hill Collins, Kimberlé Crenshaw, bell hooks, and the Combahee River Collective, discuss Black feminist thought as one approach to analyzing representations of Black women in the U.S. How does Black feminist thought approach the popular representation of Black women, and what are the advantages of using this framework?
patricia hill collins
epistemology of Black Feminist Thought
very different knowledge process. it comes from black women’s lived experiences, use of dialogue, ethic of caring, ethics of accountability. the validation comes from black women’s experiences.
kimberle Crenshaw
think about the legal cases
legal systems did not consider the possibility of a black women. they did not allow BW to represent either all women or all black people. so they were disqualified using race for cases about gender and disqualified using gender for cases about race.
intersectionality
bell hooks
oppositional gaze, spectatorship, agency, taking back their power
CRC
interlocking systems of oppression. cannot compromise. but also recognize the complications of activism especially regarding Black Feminists.
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