LOGIC AND RHETORIC MIDTERM

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What is logic?

i. the art of reasoning (most foundational and fundamental)

ii. the science of sciences

iii. the art of arts

Meaning of “art”

i. carefully reasoned out study pursued for the purpose of making something

ii. creation 

Meaning of “science”

i. a reasoned out, necessary, and certain knowledge about a specific subject matter

ii. contemplation

iii. how things are

Meaning of “liberal art” 

i. propaedeutic: preparatory 

ii. baseline, foundational academic skills upon which all other arts are built

three acts of the intellect as science and art:

i. simple apprehension (science); definition (art)

ii. composition and division (science); statement (art)

iii. discursive reasoning (science); arguments (art)

Meaning of “sign”

signs don’t exist for their own sake, but to bring to mind something else

purely natural sign:

rainbow (storm is over); smoke (fire)

natural sign by intent:

dog trained to bark, yawning to signify boredom

conventional sign:

i. agreed upon by humanity to mean a certain thing

ii. language is categorized here

formal sign:

we interact with the world through signs in our mind; internal, within

meaning of “word”

expression of our thoughts about realities in the world

relationship between understanding and naming:

We name in order to understand— defining and naming aim at finding the essence of a thing

meaning of “predication”

i. a type of logical naming; “X is Y”

ii. “X” is the subject 

iii. “Y” is the predicate 

iv. the predicate says/asserts something about the subject 

predication: meaning of “substance”

substance (what is x) = something

predication: meaning of “attribute”

attribute (what is x like) = feature of something

predication: meaning of “individual”

individual = this one thing pre

predication: meaning of “universal”

universal = general kind of something

why must the predicate be universal?

The predicate is ALWAYS universal because only universals can be “said of” many things; only universals express a nature or kind

meaning of “semantic triangle”

We see an *image* (animal), we build a *concept* from what we see (long trunk, baggy skin), we create a *term* (elephant)

meaning of “term”

i. a word signifying a concept

ii. sign of a sign (conventional pointing to formal)

predicaments: substance

what it is

predicaments: quantity

i. how many?

ii. discrete: to be counted; individuals

iii. continuous: to be measured; all part of a single thing

predicaments: quality

i. form/shape

ii. habits— beliefs, knowledge, character; *constant*

iii. dispostion— emotions, ideas, mood

iv. natural ability

v. sensible quality— texture, color, how it makes you feel

predicaments: relation

of what? (requires correlation) 

predicaments: action

doing what?

predicaments: passion

having what done to it?

predicaments: time

when?

predicaments: place

where?

predicaments: position

in what posture?

predicaments: condition

equipped with what? having what on?

meaning of “summum genus”

the highest genus — something that is not a species of anything else

meaning of “infirma species”

The lowest species — something that is not a genus of anything else

meaning of “primary sequence”

primary: an individual, like Devin or Dr. Patch

meaning of “secondary substance”

a kind of thing, e.g. person or professor

meaning of “predicables”

ways of defining the relationship between subject and predicate

predicables: genus

contains several species; tells what the species are generally

predicables: species

i. contains several individuals; tells what each one is specifically 

ii. a species can also be a genus

predicables: specific difference

the attribute that separates one species for another

predicables: property

i. an attribute that follows the specific difference

ii. exclusive and universal to the species

predicables: accident

an attribute that is not universal and exclusive to the species

meaning of “tree of porphyry”

i. moves from universal to less universal

ii. from summum genus to infirma species

rules of division:

i. the division must be into parts less universal than the whole

ii. division must include all parts of the whole

iii. division must exclude anything not a part of the whole

iv. includes only parts formally opposed to one another

v. division maintains one and the same basis

different paths to division:

i. division (up to down)

ii. collection (down to up)

iii. by property, seeking their cause/specific difference (lateral)

meaning of “definitum”

the thing being defined

principles of a logical definition:

i. tells clearly what a thing is

ii. is convertible with the definition (man = rational animal)

iii. it is of something universal (individuals such as Devin cannot be defined)

form of a perfect/essential defintion:

i. most proximate genus

ii. specific difference

non-logical defining: nominal

i. synonym

ii. etymology

iii. metaphor

iv. negation

non-logical naming: ostensive

points to the thing

definition by cause:

i. formal (in what form/shape?)

ii. material (what is it made of?)

iii. efficient (who/what made it?)

iv. final (for what purpose?)

definition by property:

i. man = risible animal 

ii. triangle = interior angles equal 180

defintion by accident:

i. man = featherless biped

ii. love = overpowering emotion

meaning of “judgement”

two kinds: composition and division

meaning of “division”

divides two concepts by negation (of verb copula)

meaning of “composition”

unites two concepts with affirmation (of verb copula)

meaning of “statement”

i. type of sentence, which is a composite expression with a noun + verb

ii. a declarative sentence with a truth value

meaning of “categorical statement” 

subject + verb copula + predicate

meaning of “simple statement”

subject + verb copula + predicate

meaning of “compound statement”

more than one subject and/or predicate 

meaning of “quality of a statement”

i. affirmation (is/are)

ii. negation (is not/are not)

meaning of “square of opposition”

we know this!!!

discursive reasoning: argument

the structured expression of an inference

discursive reasoning: inference

i. a conclusion drawn from existing knowledge

ii. combination of judgements

discursive reasoning: deductive argument

more universal to less universal

discursive reasoning: inductive argument

less universal to more universal

meaning of “categorical syllogism”

i. a deductive argument

ii. made up of three statements called “propositions” 

parts of a categorical syllogism

i. two premises and a conclusion

ii. premise with the minor term is the minor premise

iii. premise with the major term is the major premise

iv. minor term is the subject of the conclusion

v. major term is the predicate of the conclusion

vi. term not in the conclusion is the middle term

categorical syllogism: distribution of terms

i: A = DU

ii. E = DD

iii. I = UU

iv. O = UD

categorical syllogism: figure 

i. relies on the placement of the middle term 

ii. first figure: M is X, Y is M

iii. second figure: X is M, Y is M

iv. third figure: M is X, M is Y

categorical syllogism: mood

“Valid Mood” refers to the combination of quality and quantity in the syllogism’s propositions

meaning of “conditional syllogism” 

if A, then B 

valid forms of conditional syllogism

i. Modus Ponens:

if A then B

A

therefore, B

ii. Modus Tollens

if A then B

not B

therefore, not A

invalid forms of a conditional syllogism:

i. affirming the consequent

if A then B

B

therefore A

ii. denying the antecedent

if A then B

not A

therefore not B

meaning of “disjunctive syllogism” 

A is B or C is C

proper and improper sequence

the antecedent necessitates the consequent

meaning of “strong disjunct” 

A and B cannot both be true at the same time 

real (vs. indeterminate) alternatives

i. real means that A and B are both realities 

ii. indeterminate means that one or the other is not a clear reality 

distinction between categorical and dialectical syllogisms:

both follow categorical form, but the first premise of a dialectic syllogism (unlike the categorical syllogism) is probable, not certain

meaning of an “enthymeme”

major premise is probable, minor premise is singular