Unit 0

8/20/25

Psychodynamic Perspective

influence of unconscious psychological processes, particularly early childhood experiences, on behavior and personality

Behavioral Perspective

observable behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment, particularly through conditioning processes like reinforcement and punishment

Humanistic Perspective

individual's personal growth, self-understanding, and the pursuit of a meaningful and fulfilling life

Cognitive Perspective

mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving as crucial factors in understanding human behavior

Biological Perspective

biological factors influence behavior and mental processes

Evolutionary Perspective

human thought and behavior through the lens of natural selection, suggesting that psychological traits enhance survival and reproduction are likely to be passed through generations

Sociocultural Perspective

social and cultural factors influence human behavior and mental processes

Biopsychosocial Perspective

explains behavior and health by considering the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors, rather than attributing them to a single cause

Psychology

study of behavior and mental processes, encompassing observable actions and internal thoughts and feelings

Mental Process

workings of the mind, including thinking, feeling, and remembering, which cannot be directly observed but influence behavior

Behavior

observable and external responses to its environment, distinct from internal mental processes like thoughts and emotions

Conformation Bias

tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs or biases, while disregarding or downplaying contradictory evidence

Hindsight Bias

see a past event as more predictable than it actually was, I-knew-it-all-along"

Overconfidence

belief in their own knowledge, abilities, or the accuracy of their judgments is significantly greater than their objective accuracy

Empirical Evidence

knowledge gained from systematic observation or experimentation, rather than relying on theory or speculation alone

Scientific Method

standardized, systematic, and objective process for acquiring knowledge about human behavior and mental processes

Hypothesis

precise, testable statement predicting the outcome of a study, often proposing a relationship between variables

Falsifiable

one that can be proven false through observation or experimentation

Peer Review

formal evaluation process where other experts in the field, or "peers," assess an unpublished research manuscript for its accuracy, quality, and significance before it can be published in a scholarly journal

Replication

process of repeating a previous study to see if the same results can be obtained using similar methods and conditions

Reliability

the consistency and dependability of a measurement or test

Validity

the degree to which a psychological test or assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure

The American Psychological Association

organization dedicated to advancing the field of study

Research Design

overall strategy and blueprint for conducting a scientific study, which outlines the specific plan for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to answer a research question

Methodology

overall strategy and underlying principles used in research to investigate psychological phenomena, encompassing the scientific method, specific research designs, and the rationale for choosing them to meet study objectives

Quantitative

numerical data and statistical analysis to measure, describe, and analyze variables and phenomena related to human behavior and mental processes

Qualitative

research that collects non-numerical, descriptive data to understand experiences, behaviors, and subjective phenomena, rather than relying on numbers and statistics

Likert Scales

measures a respondent's level of agreement or disagreement with a particular statement or item, providing quantifiable data on attitudes, beliefs, or opinions

Structured Interviews

research method where an interviewer asks a standardized set of questions in a fixed order to every interviewee, allowing for consistent, comparable data collection and analysis

Survey Technique

a descriptive research method where a representative sample of a population is asked questions about their attitudes, behaviors, or other characteristics to gather self-reported data

Wording Effect

where the way a question or statement is phrased influences how participants answer or behave

Social Desirability Bias

participants in a study respond to questions in a way that presents them in the most favorable light, often leading good behaviors or underreporting of undesirable ones to align with social norms or the perceived expectations of the researcher

Naturalistic Observation

research method where a psychologist observes and records behavior in its natural, real-world setting without manipulating or controlling the environment or the subjects' actions

Case Study

a detailed, in-depth investigation of a single individual, small group, event, or phenomenon within its real-life context

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables

Positive Correlation

relationship between two variables where they both increase or decrease together, moving in the same direction. This relationship is indicated by a correlation coefficient close to +1.0

Negative Correlation

a relationship between two variables where an increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other, or vice versa, -1

Experimental Method

a research approach where a researcher manipulates an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable to determine if a cause-and-effect relationship exists

Independent Variable

the factor that the experimenter manipulates, changes, or controls to observe its effect on another variable

Dependent Variable

the outcome of an experiment that is measured by the researcher and is expected to change in response to the independent variable

Confounding Variable

an extraneous factor other than the independent variable that affects the dependent variable, potentially distorting the relationship between them and leading to inaccurate conclusions about the study's results

Operational Defintion

a concrete description of a concept or variable in terms of the precise procedures or operations used to measure and observe it

Experimental Group

the group of participants in a study that is exposed to the independent variable or treatment being tested

Control Group

the group in an experiment that does not receive the independent variable (the treatment or intervention being tested) and serves as a baseline for comparison with the experimental group

Random Group

a research method where participants are randomly placed into experimental or control groups to ensure that both groups are similar

Placebo Effect

the phenomenon where a person experiences a genuine improvement in their condition after receiving a harmless, inert substance or treatment (a placebo) because they believe it is a real treatment

Experimenter Bias

the unconscious tendency of a researcher to influence the results of an experiment to align with their expectations or hypothesis

Single-Blind Study

the research participants are unaware of which experimental condition or treatment group they are assigned to, such as receiving a real drug or a placebo

Double-Blind Study

an experimental design where neither the research participants nor the researchers administering the study know who is receiving the experimental treatment and who is receiving the placebo or control

Placebo Condition

giving a participant a substance or treatment with no active therapeutic properties—like a sugar pill or saline solution—to control for the effects of expectation, not the treatment itself

Sample

a group of individuals selected to participate in a psychology research study, drawn from a larger population that the researcher wants to understand

Representative Sample

a subset of a larger population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population, ensuring that the sample's demographics (like age, gender, or socioeconomic status) match those of the population it is intended to represent

Random Sample

a method of selecting participants for a study in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen, resulting in a sample that fairly represents the overall population

Sample Bias

occurs when the sample selected for a study is not representative of the population it is intended to represent, causing skewed results

Generalizability

the extent to which the findings or results from a specific study sample can be applied to a larger, broader population or different contexts and situations

Statistics

mathematical methods used to organize, analyze, and interpret data from psychological research to understand behavior and mental processes

Descriptive Statistics

numerical methods used to organize, summarize, and describe the main features of a dataset or group

Inferential Statistic

a set of statistical techniques used to draw conclusions about a whole population based on data gathered from a sample of that population

Measure of Central Tendency

single statistic that describes the center or typical value of a data set

Mean

the arithmetic average of a data set or distribution, calculated by adding all the scores together and then dividing the sum by the total number of scores

Median

a measure of central tendency that represents the middle score in a dataset that has been arranged from smallest to largest

Mode

a measure of central tendency that represents the score or value that appears most frequently in a given data set

Range

a measure of variation or dispersion in a dataset, calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest values within a set of scores or data points

Normal Curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped graph that represents the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes, where the majority of scores cluster around the average (mean, median, and mode are all at the same central point), with fewer scores at the extremes

Regression to the Mean

the statistical phenomenon where extremely high or low scores on a first measurement tend to move closer to the average (the mean) on a subsequent measurement, often due to chance or luck being involved in the initial extreme performance

Positive Skew

a frequency distribution where the tail of the distribution extends to the right

Negative Skew

a data distribution where most scores are high, but a few extremely low scores create a "tail" that extends to the left on the number line

Standard Deviation

a statistical measure of variability that indicates the average distance of scores from the mean

Percentile Rank

indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a particular score

Bimodal Distribution

a set of data that has two distinct peaks, or modes, indicating two different groups or phenomena within the dataset

Statistical Significance

indicates whether the results of a study are likely to be real or due to chance

Effect Sizes

measures the practical significance or magnitude of a research finding, indicating how substantial a difference or relationship between variables is in real-world terms

Meta Analysis

a statistical procedure that combines the results from multiple independent studies investigating the same phenomenon to arrive at an overall, pooled conclusion

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

a committee that reviews research proposals involving human or animal subjects to ensure the research is ethical, safe, and protects the rights and welfare of participants

Informed Consent

a fundamental ethical principle requiring researchers to provide potential participants with sufficient information about a study to allow them to make a voluntary and informed decision about participation

Informed Assent

a minor's or an individual incapable of giving legal consent, voluntary agreement to participate in research after being provided with a simplified, age-appropriate explanation of the study's nature, expected risks, and potential benefits

Confidentiality

a core ethical principle requiring psychologists to protect a participant's identity and the information they provide, ensuring it is not disclosed without consent and is kept separate from identifying details in reports

Deceptions

the intentional misleading of research participants by deliberately misinforming them or withholding information about the true purpose or nature of a study to observe their authentic reactions

Confederates

an individual who acts as a participant in a research experiment but is actually working for the experimenter, posing as a fellow participant to influence the behavior of the true subjects

Debriefing

the ethical process after a study where researchers explain the true purpose, methods, and findings of the research to participants, especially when deception was used

Article Analysis Question (AAQ)

a free-response question that provides a summarized, peer-reviewed research article and requires students to answer six specific parts, analyzing the study's research method, operational definitions, statistical interpretation, ethical guidelines, generalizability, and how its findings relate to psychological content and hypotheses

Evidence Based Question (EBQ)

a free-response question that requires you to analyze three summarized, peer-reviewed studies on a common topic, form a scientifically defensible claim, support it with two distinct pieces of evidence from two different studies, and explain how that evidence supports your claim by linking it to AP Psychology course concepts

Defensible Claim

a clear, specific, and arguable statement about a psychological topic that can be supported by scientific evidence and reasoning from the course