Unit 0: Introduction & Science Practices

Biological Perspective

Focuses on genetic makeup to identify issues.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Investigates unconscious states and the impact of early childhood experiences.

Cognitive Perspective

Emphasizes understanding a person's thinking processes.

Behavioral Perspective

Centers on understanding behavior through interactions with the environment.

Humanistic Perspective

Believes in the potential for growth in supportive environments.

Evolutionary Perspective

Suggests adaptation for reproduction and survival.

Socio-Cultural Perspective

Highlights the significance of cultural context in understanding individuals.

Operational Definitions

Clear description of variables for measurement.

Generalizability

Extent to which findings apply to broader populations.

Validity

Accuracy of the measurements.

Correlations

Relationship between variables.

Positive Correlation

As one variable increases, so does the other.

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in natural settings.

Case Study

In-depth analysis of an individual or group.

Survey

Collecting data through questionnaires.

Correlational Studies

Examining relationships between variables.

Meta-Analysis

Analyzing results from multiple studies.

Independent Variable

Manipulated variable in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

Observed outcome in an experiment.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups.

Control Group

Group not receiving treatment for comparison.

Informed Consent

Participants must be aware of their involvement.

Confidentiality

Assurance of privacy.

Debriefing

Informing participants about the study's purpose after participation.

Stability vs Change

Are personality traits lifelong or do they change?

Nature vs Nurture

The influence of genetics versus environment.

Continuity vs Stage

Development as gradual vs. distinct stages.

Cross-Sectional Research

Comparing different age groups at one point in time.

Longitudinal Research

Studying the same group over a period of time.

Teratogens

Harmful substances affecting fetal development.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Impact of alcohol consumption during pregnancy on fetal development.

Maturation

Natural growth processes.

Fine Motor Skills

Development of small muscle movements.

Gross Motor Skills

Development of large muscle movements.

Infant Reflexes

Automatic responses present at birth.

Visual Cliff

Study on infant perception of depth.

Critical Periods

Key times for development where certain skills must be acquired.

Language Stages: Cooing, Babbling, One-word, Telegraphic Speech

Progression of language development in infants.

Phonemes

Basic units of sound.

Morphemes

Basic units of meaning.

Grammar

Understanding syntax vs. semantics.

Language Errors

Common mistakes like overgeneralization.

Schemas

Cognitive organization concepts.

Assimilation

Adapting to new information by incorporating it into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

First stage of Piaget’s cognitive development focused on sensory and motor exploration.

Preoperational Stage

Second stage of Piaget's theory with symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Concrete Operational Stage

Third stage where logical thinking develops involving concrete objects.

Formal Operational Stage

Final stage of Piaget's theory involving abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Ecological Systems Theory

Influence of social environments on development.

Attachment Theory

The importance of nurturing in attachment development.

Strange Situation

Assessment of attachment patterns in children.

Temperament

Different personality traits observable early in life.

Parenting Styles

Styles including authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful.

Gender Identity

Understanding gender differences and identity.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Eight stages and their associated virtues.

Puberty

Physical changes during adolescence.

Primary Sex Characteristics

Development of the reproductive system.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Development of traits not directly involved in reproduction.

Menarche

Onset of menstruation.

Spermarche

Onset of sperm production.

Synaptic Pruning

The elimination of excess neurons.

Menopause

Changes in women’s reproductive system.

Mobility & Flexibility

Aging effects on physical capabilities.

Reaction Time & Sensory Changes

Decline in reaction times and sensory function in aging adults.

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge accumulated over time.

Fluid Intelligence

Problem-solving abilities.

Neurocognitive Disorders

Impact of conditions like dementia and Alzheimer’s disease on cognitive functions.

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infancy (0-1.5 years): Virtue is hope. The infant is uncertain about the world, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency. If care is inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant may develop mistrust.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Early Childhood (1.5-3 years): Virtue is will. The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering that they have many skills and capabilities. If children are allowed to discover themselves, they develop autonomy. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Preschool Age (3-5 years): Virtue is purpose. Children begin to plan activities, accomplish tasks and face challenges. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. If initiative is not encouraged, children may develop a sense of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

School Age (5-12 years): Virtue is competence. Children are becoming capable of performing increasingly complex tasks. As children demonstrate the ability to be successful, they develop a sense of industry, by feeling pride in their accomplishments. If children are not encouraged, or if they are restricted by believing that they cannot meet the expectations, children begin to feel inferior, doubting their own abilities.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescence (12-18 years): Virtue is fidelity. Adolescents explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations. If adolescents are encouraged to explore, they will emerge with a strong sense of who they are, and a feeling of independence and control. If adolescents are not allowed to explore, they can become insecure, confused about themselves and their future.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young Adulthood (18-40 years): Virtue is love. Individuals begin to share themselves more intimately with others and explore relationships leading towards longer term commitments with someone other than a family member. If successful, they experience satisfying relationships, intimacy, safety and care. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness and even depression.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle Adulthood (40-65 years): Virtue is care. Individuals establish careers, settle down within relationships, begin families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. If successful, individuals develop a sense of generativity, by giving back to society through raising children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. If not, they become stagnant and feel unproductive.

Integrity vs. Despair

Older Adulthood (65+ years): Virtue is wisdom. Individuals slow down their productivity, and explore life as a retired person. If satisfied with their accomplishments, they develop feelings of integrity, and feel content that they have led a meaningful life. If unsuccessful, they develop feelings of despair, may become depressed and lonely.