Unit 0: Introduction & Science Practices

Theoretical Perspectives

Biological Perspective: Centers on genetic makeup, examining how genes influence behavior and psychological disorders. This involves studying the heritability of traits, genetic mutations, and the role of neurotransmitters. For example, research in behavioral genetics explores the genetic predispositions for conditions like depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety disorders.

Psychodynamic Perspective: Investigates unconscious states and the impact of early childhood experiences (first five years). This approach, rooted in the work of Sigmund Freud, delves into the hidden motivations behind actions and feelings, often using techniques like dream analysis and free association to uncover unresolved conflicts. The impact of early relationships, particularly with parents, is considered crucial.

Cognitive Perspective: Emphasizes understanding a person's thinking processes, including how individuals perceive, interpret, and remember information. Cognitive psychologists study topics such as attention, memory, problem-solving, and language. Cognitive therapies aim to change maladaptive thought patterns to improve mental well-being.

Behavioral Perspective: Centers on understanding behavior through interactions with the environment, focusing on observable actions and learned responses. This perspective uses principles of classical and operant conditioning to explain how behaviors are acquired and maintained. Behavioral therapies often involve techniques like exposure therapy, reinforcement, and punishment.

Humanistic Perspective: Believes in the potential for growth in supportive environments, emphasizing the individual's inherent capacity for self-actualization. Humanistic psychologists focus on subjective experiences, personal values, and the importance of empathy and acceptance in fostering growth. Therapies like person-centered therapy aim to provide a supportive and non-judgmental environment for personal exploration.

Evolutionary Perspective: Suggests adaptation for reproduction and survival, examining how behaviors and psychological traits have evolved over time to enhance reproductive success. Evolutionary psychologists study topics such as mate selection, aggression, and cooperation, considering how these behaviors may have been shaped by natural selection.

Socio-Cultural Perspective: Highlights the significance of cultural context in understanding individuals, recognizing that social and cultural factors influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This perspective explores topics such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs, as well as the impact of social institutions and cultural practices on mental health and well-being.

Research Methods

Operational Definitions: Clear description of variables for measurement, ensuring that research findings can be replicated and validated. Operational definitions specify how variables will be measured in a study, allowing for objective assessment and comparison across different studies.

Generalizability: Extent to which findings apply to broader populations, indicating the external validity of research results. Researchers aim to generalize their findings to diverse populations, considering factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, and cultural background to ensure broad applicability.

Validity: Accuracy of the measurements, reflecting the extent to which a test or measure assesses what it is intended to assess. Validity is essential for ensuring that research findings are meaningful and reliable, and researchers use various methods to assess the validity of their measures.

Correlations:

Positive: As one variable increases, so does the other, indicating a direct relationship between the two variables. For example, there is often a positive correlation between hours of study and exam scores.

Negative: As one variable increases, the other decreases, indicating an inverse relationship between the two variables. For instance, there may be a negative correlation between time spent watching television and physical activity levels.

Non-Experimental Methods

Naturalistic Observation: Watching behavior in natural settings, allowing researchers to observe real-world behaviors without intervention. Naturalistic observation provides valuable insights into behavior as it naturally occurs, but it may be subject to observer bias.

Case Study: In-depth analysis of an individual or group, providing rich and detailed information about a particular phenomenon. Case studies are often used to explore rare or unusual cases, but they may not be generalizable to broader populations.

Survey: Collecting data through questionnaires, allowing researchers to gather information from large samples quickly and efficiently. Surveys can provide valuable insights into attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, but they may be subject to response bias.

Correlational Studies: Examining relationships between variables, allowing researchers to identify patterns and make predictions. Correlational studies can reveal associations between variables, but they cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Meta-Analysis: Analyzing results from multiple studies, providing a comprehensive overview of the existing research on a particular topic. Meta-analysis can increase statistical power and provide more reliable estimates of effect sizes.

Experimental Methods

Independent & Dependent Variables: Manipulated variable vs. observed outcome, allowing researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships. In an experiment, the independent variable is the factor that is manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the outcome that is measured.

Random Assignment: Randomly assigning participants to groups, ensuring that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group. Random assignment helps to minimize the effects of confounding variables and increase the internal validity of the study.

Control Group: Group not receiving treatment for comparison, providing a baseline against which the effects of the treatment can be evaluated. The control group serves as a point of reference for determining whether the treatment has a significant effect.

Ethics in Research

Informed Consent: Participants must be aware of their involvement, including the purpose of the research, potential risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time. Informed consent ensures that participants make voluntary and informed decisions about their participation.

Confidentiality: Assurance of privacy, protecting the identity and personal information of research participants. Researchers must take steps to protect the confidentiality of participants' data, such as using anonymous coding or storing data in secure locations.

Debriefing: Informing participants about the study's purpose after they have participated, including any deception that was used and providing an opportunity to ask questions. Debriefing allows researchers to address any misconceptions or concerns that participants may have and ensure their well-being.

Unit 1: Human Growth & Development

Thematic Issues in Development

Stability vs Change: Are personality traits lifelong or do they change? This explores whether our characteristics remain consistent over time or evolve in response to experiences and maturation.

Nature vs Nurture: The influence of genetics versus environment. This examines the relative contributions of inherited traits and external factors in shaping development.

Continuity vs Stage: Development as gradual vs. distinct stages. This considers whether growth occurs smoothly and continuously or through specific, qualitatively different phases.

Types of Developmental Research

Cross-Sectional: Comparing different age groups at one point in time. This method provides a snapshot of differences but doesn't track individual changes over time.

Longitudinal: Studying the same group over a period of time. This allows researchers to observe changes over time but can be time-consuming and affected by attrition.

Infant/Child Physical Development

Teratogens & Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Impact of harmful substances on fetal development. These substances can cause birth defects and developmental delays.

Maturation: Natural growth processes. This refers to the unfolding of genetically programmed behaviors and physical changes.

Fine & Gross Motor Skills: Development of small vs. large muscle movements. Fine motor skills involve precise movements, while gross motor skills involve larger muscle groups.

Infant Reflexes: Automatic responses present at birth. These reflexes, like the rooting and sucking reflexes, aid survival.

Visual Cliff & Depth Perception: Studies on infant perception of depth. This classic experiment assesses when infants develop depth perception.

Critical Periods: Key times for development where certain skills must be acquired. These are sensitive periods when certain experiences have a significant impact.

Language Development

Language Stages:

Cooing: infant makes vowel sounds (2-4 months)

Babbling: consonant/vowel sounds (4-12 months)

One-word: uses one word (12 months)

Telegraphic Speech: uses 2 word sentences (18-24 months)

Phonemes & Morphemes: Basic units of sound and meaning. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound; morphemes are the smallest units of meaning.

Grammar: Understanding syntax vs. semantics. Syntax is the arrangement of words; semantics is the meaning of words and sentences.

Language Errors: Common mistakes like overgeneralization. This occurs when children apply grammatical rules too broadly.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Schemas, Assimilation, Accommodation: Concepts of cognitive organization, adaptation to new information. Schemas are mental frameworks; assimilation is fitting new information into existing schemas; accommodation is modifying schemas to fit new information.

Stages of Development: Identify age, name, and milestones for:

Sensorimotor Stage: (0-2 years): Experiencing world through senses and actions; object permanence, stranger anxiety.

Preoperational Stage: (2-7 years): Representing things with words and images; pretend play, egocentrism, animism.

Concrete Operational Stage: (7-11 years): Thinking logically about concrete events; conservation, mathematical transformations.

Formal Operational Stage: (12+ years): Abstract reasoning; potential for mature moral reasoning.

Psychosocial Development

Ecological Systems Theory: Influence of social environments on development. This theory emphasizes the interconnectedness of various environmental systems.

Attachment Theory (Harry Harlow): Importance of nurturing in attachment. Harlow's research with monkeys demonstrated the importance of comfort and security.

Strange Situation & Attachment Styles (Mary Ainsworth): Assessment of attachment patterns in children. This assesses attachment styles: secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganized.

Temperament: Different personality traits observable early in life. Temperament includes traits like activity level, adaptability, and emotionality.

Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind): Styles including authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful. These styles impact child development and outcomes.

Gender Identity & Sexual Orientation: Understanding gender differences and identity. This explores how individuals perceive and understand their gender and sexual preferences.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: Eight stages and their associated virtues. These stages span from infancy to late adulthood, each with a unique crisis to resolve.

Adolescent Physical Development

Puberty: Physical changes during adolescence. This includes hormonal changes and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Primary & Secondary Sex Characteristics: Development of reproductive system and secondary traits. Primary characteristics involve the reproductive organs; secondary characteristics include traits like facial hair and breast development.

Menarche & Spermarche: Onset of menstruation and sperm production. These are key markers of sexual maturation.

Synaptic Pruning: The elimination of excess neurons. This process refines neural connections and improves efficiency.

Adult Physical Development

Menopause: Changes in women’s reproductive system. This includes the cessation of menstruation and decreased hormone production.

Mobility & Flexibility: Aging effects on physical capabilities. Aging can lead to decreased mobility, flexibility, and muscle strength.

Reaction Time & Sensory Changes: Decline in reaction times and sensory function in aging adults. This affects daily activities and safety.

Cognition in Adulthood

Crystallized & Fluid Intelligence: Knowledge accumulated vs. problem-solving abilities. Crystallized intelligence increases with age;