AP Psych Unit 2 Vocab

APA ethical guidelines for human research

A- Beneficence and non-maleficence

B- Fidelity and responsibility

C- Integrity

D- Justice

E- Respect for people's rights and dignity

5 general principles developed based of feedback from thousands of psychologists (A- aim to help and do no harm; B- established trust and uphold one's responsibilities; C- be honest, accurate, and truthful in one's conduct; D- uphold the rights of all to benefit from one's work; E- respect the dignity and worth of all people)

applied research

Research that psychologists conduct to solve practical problems

Barnum effect

a cognitive bias that occurs when individuals believe that generic personality descriptions and statements apply specifically to themselves when in reality, they could apply to almost everyone

basic research

Research that explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications

biased sample

occurs when some members of your intended population have lower sampling probability than others or when there's systematic difference between samples taken at different times or places

case study

A highly detailed descriptive research method used to assess the behavior of a single subject or small subject group (Advantages- allow study of phenomena that are impossible to test and more detailed look at subject than within a study, disadvantages- can be difficult to generalize conclusions to a larger population, can be expensive)

causation conditioned response

the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus, resulting from pairing a neutral stimulus with a unconditioned stimulus

confounding variables

Variables that interfere with study results due to having a connection to the independent variable that is not easy to separate

control

factors that researchers keep constant to ensure that they do not interfere with the results of an experiment.

control group

A group of participants who don't receive the treatment that is given to the experimental group

correlation

Statistical analysis that examines the relationship between values; Only demonstrates relationship, does not imply that one variable influences another)

correlation coefficient

Statistical value that represents strength of relationship between variables (As it gets closer to -1.00 or 1.00, correlation strength increases )

covert behavior

private events that cannot be observed by anyone but the individual performing the action. They can be cognitive, emotional, or physiological

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

debriefing

a process used after an experiment or study where participants are provided with information regarding the purpose, procedures, and findings of the study. It allows participants to ask questions, express concerns, and ensures their well-being after participating.

dependent variable

The research variable that changes or varies as a result of the independent variable (y)

descriptive research

type of research done that describes various behaviors or data collected through observational research methods

descriptive statistics

Statistics used to organize, summarize, and describe sample data (ex- highest rank in a class)

double-blind procedure

Neither the subjects or researchers are aware of the group that the subjects have been assigned to

empirical evidence

data or information that is gathered through observation, experimentation, or measurement

ethics in research

A branch of philosophy concerned with establishing the principles of right and wrong behavior (concerned with how people should behave, must apply to human behavior)

experimental research

type of research that explores cause-effect relationships by manipulating data

experimental group

A group of participants who receive treatment through the manipulation of the independent variable

experimental method

A systematic approach used in scientific research to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables

experimental self-observation

training people to carefully and objectively as possible analyze the content of their own thoughts

experimental subjects

a group who voluntarily choose to participate in an experiment

experimenter bias/ research bias

occurs when a researcher unconsciously affects results, data, or a participant in an experiment due to subjective influence.

fallacy of positive instances/confirmation bias

individuals tend to focus on and remember information that confirms their preexisting beliefs or hypotheses while disregarding evidence that contradicts them

gender bias

the tendency to favor one gender over another in psychological research, theory, or practice. It can involve assumptions, stereotypes, or prejudices that influence how researchers collect data, interpret results, or apply their findings to real-world situations

Hawthorne effect

A phenomenon in which research subjects tend to alter their behavior in response to knowledge of being observed

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

hypothesis

A tentative prediction about the relationship between variables

illusory correlation

when the person believes that a relationship exists between two variables when it does not.

independent variable

The research value that is manipulated in an experiment to test its impact on another variable (x)

inferential statistics

Statistics used to analyze sample data in order to make conclusions about a population ; inferes, manipulates, predicts (ex

informed consent

communication between a professional and a subject in which the subject gives permission for a procedure to occur

mean

the average value of scores within a given set of data

measures of variability

describe how spread out or scattered the values in a data set are, include range, variance, and standard deviation

median

Middle value within a given set of data that separates a distribution into two equal parts

mode

Value that occurs the most often within a given set of data

naturalistic observation

A descriptive research method used to analyze organisms objectively in a natural habitat without interference (Advantages- doesn't manipulate or interfere with behavior of subjects, disadvantages- observer effect can influence analysis, human error may occur, can be difficult to explain behavior, provides no insight into cognitive processes)

negative correlation

data is high on one axis, low on another axis (represented by -1.00 correlation coefficient)

normal curve/ bell curve/ Gaussian distribution

represents data that clusters around a mean or average. It's symmetrically balanced with half of all scores falling above and below the mean.

observer bias

the tendency to interpret or record data in a way that aligns with their own expectations, beliefs, or hypotheses, rather than objectively observing the actual behavior or phenomenon

observer effect operational definition

when participants change their natural behavior (e.g., becoming more self-conscious, performing differently) simply because they know they are being observed.

overconfidence

the tendency of an individual to overestimate their abilities and knowledge, leading them to make decisions without considering potential risks or negative outcomes

overt behavior

actions and reactions that are observable and measurable

participant bias / response bias

the tendency of participants in a study to respond in a way that does not accurately reflect their true thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, often due to external influences or internal motivations.

placebo

A substance or treatment having no actual effects that is administered as a control and experimental testing

placebo effect

when a group of people feel an effect of a drug when they have actually only ingested a placebo

population

The group from which participants are taken

positive correlation

High on both axis variables (represented by 1.00 correlation coefficient)

prediction

what someone thinks will happen

random assignment

a way of sorting the sample into control and experimental groups by chance

random sample

a subset of a population in which every individual has an equal chance of being selected. The selection process is purely random, with no specific criteria or patterns involved.

random selection

Participants are selected by chance to be in a study (increases generalizability)

range

the lowest score subtracted from the higher score

reliability

The extent to which components and results of a research study are consistent and stable (A statistical measure can still be reliable even if invalid)

replication

reproducing a study to see if you get the same results.

representative sample

a subset of a population that accurately reflects the characteristics of the entire population. The sample includes a diversity of individuals that mirrors the broader group being studied.

research method

the specific approach or technique used to gather data and investigate a particular question or hypothesis in a scientific study

sampling bias

occurs when part of the population is not accurately represented

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

scientific observation

any sensory experience about a natural phenomenon in a lab setting or the natural world.

single-blind experiment

The researchers are aware of group assignments but participants remain unaware of what group they are assigned to

skewed distribution

a statistical term that describes the shape of a set of data in which the values are not evenly distributed around the mean.

standard deviation

Average distance between variable scores and the mean in a set of data

statistical significance

Likelihood that a statistical finding is the result of something other than chance/coincidence

stratified sampling

sampling method that is used to ensure that specific subgroups within a population are properly represented in a research study. This method involves dividing the population into different subgroups, or strata, based on certain characteristics, and then randomly selecting participants from each of these subgroups

survey method

A research tool used to gather personal information about participants (advantages- Efficient data collection on an observable phenomena, disadvantages- Can be unreliable because of deception, memory lapse, poor questions, cannot draw cause & effect conclusions)

theory

explanations or models based on observations and evidence. They help us understand why things happen and guide our understanding of various phenomena.

uncritical acceptance

Tendency to believe that a claim is true because it seems true or because we wish it were true.

validity

The extent to which components and results of a research study are logical, meaningful, relevant to the target variable (If a measure is unreliable, it is not valid)

variable

Specific factor having a range of possible values