summary slides

triacylglycerols are broken down by _, and the products are absorbed by the intestine

lipases

triacylglycerols are broken down by lipases, and the products are absorbed by the _

intestine

_ transport lipids between the intestines, liver, and other tissues

lipoproteins

_ carries acyl groups across mitochondrial membrane

carnitine

carnitine carries _ across mitochondrial membrane

acryl groups

carnitine carries acyl groups across _ membrane

mitochondrial

fatty acids to be degraded are linked to _ in an ATP-dependent reaction

CoA

_ to be degraded are linked to CoA in an ATP-dependent reaction

fatty acids

_ groups are transported into the mitochondrion via a carnitine shuttle for oxidation

fatty acyl

fatty acyl groups are transported into the _ via a carnitine shuttle for oxidation

mitochondrion

fatty acyl groups are transported into the mitochondrion via a _ shuttle for oxidation

carnitine

fatty acyl groups are transported into the mitochondrion via a carnitine shuttle for _

oxidation

each round of mitochondrial beta oxidation produces _, _, and _

FADH2, NADH, acetyl-CoA

additional enzymes are required to _ unsaturated fatty acids

oxidize

additional enzymes are required to oxidize _

unsaturated fatty acids

the _ produced by the oxidation of odd-chain fatty acids is converted to succinyl-CoA

propionyl-CoA

the propionyl-CoA produced by the oxidation of _ is converted to succinyl-CoA

odd-chain fatty acids

the propionyl-CoA produced by the oxidation of odd-chain fatty acids is converted to _

succinyl-CoA

_ (organelle in cell) oxidize long-chain fatty acids, producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

peroxisomes

peroxisomes (organelle in cell) oxidize _, producing hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

long-chain fatty acids

peroxisomes (organelle in cell) oxidize long-chain fatty acids, producing _

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

the three kinds of ketone bodies are: _

acetoacetate, acetone, hydroxybutyrate

_ may be reversibly converted to ketone bodies in the liver to be used as fuel by other tissues

acetyl-CoA

acetyl-CoA may be reversibly converted to _ in the liver to be used as fuel by other tissues

ketone bodies

acetyl-CoA may be reversibly converted to ketone bodies in the _ to be used as fuel by other tissues

liver

the _ transfers acetyl-CoA into the cytosol for fatty acid synthesis

tricarboxylate transport system

the tricarboxylate transport system transfers _ into the cytosol for fatty acid synthesis

acetyl-CoA

the tricarboxylate transport system transfers acetyl-CoA into the _ for fatty acid synthesis

cytosol

the tricarboxylate transport system transfers acetyl-CoA into the cytosol for _

fatty acid synthesis

_ begins with the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to generate malonyl-CoA

fatty acid synthesis

fatty acid synthesis begins with the _ of acetyl-CoA to generate malonyl-CoA

carboxylation

fatty acid synthesis begins with the carboxylation of _ to generate malonyl-CoA

acetyl-CoA

fatty acid synthesis begins with the carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to generate _

malonyl-CoA

_ carries out seven reactions and lengthens a fatty acid two carbons at a time

fatty acid synthase

fatty acid synthase carries out _ reactions and lengthens a fatty acid two carbons at a time

seven

fatty acid synthase carries out seven reactions and _ a fatty acid two carbons at a time

lengthens

fatty acid synthase carries out seven reactions and lengthens a fatty acid _ carbons at a time

two

elongases and desaturases may modify _

fatty acids

_ and _ may modify fatty acids

elongases, desaturases

_ are synthesized from glycerol and fatty acids

triacylglycerols

triacylglycerols are synthesized from _ and _

glycerol, fatty acids

the _ converts acetyl-CoA to cholesterol by a multistep pathway

liver

the liver converts _ to cholesterol by a multistep pathway

acetyl-CoA

the liver converts acetyl-CoA to _ by a multistep pathway

cholesterol

_ is regulated by the activity and amount of HMG-CoA reductase

cholesterol synthesis

cholesterol synthesis is regulated by the activity and amount of _

HMG-CoA reductase

the _ keeps circulating cholesterol low

LDL receptor

fatty acid oxidation and synthesis are regulated by _ and _

hormones, cellular factors

extracellular and intracellular proteins may be digested by _

lysosomal proteases

other proteins to be degraded are first conjugated to the protein _

ubiquitin

other proteins to be _ are first conjugated to the protein ubiquitin

degraded

the _, a barrel-shaped complex, unfolds ubiquitinated proteins in an ATP-dependent process and proteolytically degrades them

proteasome

the proteasome, a barrel-shaped complex, unfolds_ proteins in an ATP-dependent process and proteolytically degrades them

ubiquitinated

_ interconverts an amino acid and an alpha-keto acid

transamination

transamination interconverts an _ and an _

amino acid, alpha-keto acid

oxidative deamination of _ releases ammonia for disposal

glutamate

oxidative deamination of glutamate releases _ for disposal

ammonia

_ reactions incorporate ammonia and an amino group into urea

five

five reactions incorporate _ and an _ into urea

ammonia, amino group

five reactions incorporate ammonia and an amino group into _

urea

the rate of the urea cycle changes with the rate of _

amino acid breakdown

alanine, cysteine, glycine, serine, and threonine are broken down to _

pyruvate

_, _, _, _, _are broken down to pyruvate

alanine, cysteine, glycine, serine, threonine

asparagine and aspartate are broken down to _

oxaloacetate

_ and_ are broken down to oxaloacetate

asparagine, aspartate

_ is produced by the degradation of arginine, glutamate, glutamine, histidine, and proline

alpha-ketoglutarate

alpha-ketoglutarate is produced by the degradation of _, _, _, _, and _

arginine, glutamate, glutamine, histidine, proline

_, _,_, and _ are converted to succinyl-CoA

isoleucine, methionine, threonine, valine

isoleucine, methionine, threonine, and valine are converted to _

succinyl-CoA

_ and _ degradation yield acetyl-CoA and acetoacetate

leucine, lysine

leucine and lysine degradation yield _and _

acetyl-CoA, acetoacetate

_ is degraded to acetoacetate

tryptophan

tryptophan is degraded to _

acetoacetate

_ and _ yield fumarate and acetoacetate

phenylalanine, tyrosine

phenylalanine and tyrosine yield _ and _

fumarate, acetoacetate

the 7 common amino acid degradation products are:

pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, acetoacetate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, fumarate, oxaloacetate

some amino acids are synthesized in one or a few steps from _

common metabolites

the _ amino acids are mostly derived from other amino acids and glucose metabolites

essential

the essential amino acids are mostly derived from other _ and _

amino acids, glucose metabolites

_ is synthesized from glycine and succinyl-CoA and is degraded to a variety of colored compounds for excretion

heme

heme is synthesized from_ and _ and is degraded to a variety of colored compounds for excretion

glycine, succinyl-CoA

heme is synthesized from glycine and succinyl-CoA and is degraded to a variety of _ compounds for excretion

colored

the synthesis of bioactive _ begins with amino acid decarboxylation

amines

the synthesis of bioactive amines begins with _

amino acid decarboxylation

_ gives rise to the hormonally active gas nitric oxide (secondary messenger used in our bodies)

arginine

arginine gives rise to the hormonally active gas _ (secondary messenger used in our bodies)

nitric oxide

amino acid-derived hormones and neurotransmitters include:

epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, GABA, histamine

synthesis of L-DOPA, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine happens _

sequentially

synthesis of _, _, _, and _ happens sequentially

L-DOPA, dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

the reduction of _ to _ by nitrogenase is an energetically costly process

N2, NH3

the reduction of N2 to NH3 by _ is an energetically costly process

nitrogenase

_ is incorporated into amino acids by the action of glutamate synthase

ammonia

ammonia is incorporated into amino acids by the action of _

glutamate synthase

the major metabolic pathways for _, _, and _ center on pyruvate and acetyl-CoA

glucose, fatty acids, amino acids

the major metabolic pathways for glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids center on _ and _

pyruvate, acetyl-CoA

_ is the primary fuel for the brain

glucose

_ can generate ATP anaerobically and aerobically

muscles

_ stores triacylglycerols and releases fatty acids as needed

adipose tissue

adipose tissue stores _ and releases _ as needed

triacylglycerols, fatty acids

the _ makes all types of fuel available to other tissues

liver