sas 13 ucd fall 24 exam 1

Francis Collins

He discovered the CTFR gene that causes cystic fibrosis, key figure in the Human Genome Project

Akiko Iwasaki

She is a researcher and advocate for research into chronic illnesses, including ME/CFS and Long COVID. Advocate for disease awareness

John Enders

Him and colleagues created a vaccine for measles (later part of MMR vaccine)

Maurice Hilleman

Him and colleagues created a vaccine for measles (later part of MMR vaccine) and MMR vaccine

Andrew Wakefield

Research fraud, created 1998 study that falsely linked MMR vaccine to autism which was discredited later

Jenny McCarthy

Actress and model and prominent figure in the anti-vax movement; claims vaccines (including MMR) are linked to autism

Jim Carrey

Actor and comedian who is anti-vax and thinks the mercury in thimerosal is harmful

Robert Koch

Announced discovery of M. tuberculosis as the bacterium that causes TB and received Nobel Prize; developed a "cure" but wasn't effective

Edward Livingston Trudeau

After catching TB, he created the Adirondack Cottage Sanatorium, an isolated area for TB patients; he thought fresh air, rest, and good nutrition could help manage TB

Emily Bissell

American social worker/activist known for introducing Christmas Seals (adhesive labels for mail) to raise funds for the fight against tuberculosis (TB)

Stephan Schwander

TB researcher who aims at understanding how air pollution affects human immunity during TB infection

Tu Youyou

Discovered "artemisinin" as a treatment for malaria and how to extract it; first Chinese Nobel laureate in physiology/medicine; first Chinese female to receive a Nobel Prize

Rachel Carson

Wrote the book Silent Spring; said that if humans continued to use pesticides (e.g. DDT) without limitations, the chemicals would damage the environment and cause cancer

Disease-Society-Science Triangle

-How do diseases change societies?

-How does human action influence disease?

-What does society expect from science?

-How does science impact society-how does science change disease

-What causes disease?

One Health

Approach that recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. It aims to promote collaboration across these disciplines to manage diseases, especially zoonotic diseases that can transfer between animals and humans.

disease classification/taxonomy

a system for categorizing diseases based on causes, body systems, and symptoms; helps in understanding disease patterns, communication among healthcare providers, and public health monitoring.

InternationalClassification of Diseases (ICD)

globally recognized system used to classify diseases and health conditions developed by World Health Organization (WHO).

ICD-10-CM vs ICD-11

ICD-10-CM (Clinical Modification) is a modified version of ICD-10 that is used by the US. The rest of the world uses ICD-11 that is more up-to-date, allows for more code combinations and greater specificity in diagnosing diseases compared to ICD-10

Classifying diseases by body systems

Body systems include: muscular, digestive, nervous, urinary, reproductive, cardiovascular, hormonal, lymphatic, respiratory, skeletal

Classifying diseases by cause (etiology)

Causes include: infectious (malaria), genetic (cystic fibrosis), environmental (bad air quality)

goiter etiology

caused by iodine deficiency that results in enlargement of the thyroid gland; the thyroid gland needs iodine to function to make hormones

nutritional deficiency disease: scurvy

caused by vitamin C deficiency and was common among sailors; sailors would lose teeth, have sunken eyes, pale skin

multifactorial diseases

diseases with multiple contributing factors such as cancer, asthma, heart disease, diabetes

#1 disease with highest mortality rate

heart disease

disease morbidity

the state of being symptomatic or unhealthy for a disease or condition

disease burden

Impact of a health problem measured by indicators such as effects on society, financial cost, morbidity, and mortality

DALYs

a DALY is the loss of one year of full health

(DALYs = Years Lived with Disability + Years Life Lost)

disease definition

the opposite of health/well-being

symptom definition

noticed by the patient (subjective)

sign definition

noticed by others, e.g. physician (objective)

Fever: sign or symptom?

sign - objective (observable)

Chills: sign or symptom?

symptom - subjective (not observable)

Headache: sign or symptom?

symptom - subjective (not observable)

normativist beliefs

Normativists focus on how cultural context influences what we consider a disease (diseases are social constructions)

naturalists beliefs

They emphasize a biological basis and rely on objective criteria for defining disease (objective scientific matter)

disease etymology

the origins of how a disease got its name; came from old French word 'desaise' which means "discomfort"

WHO guidelines on naming COVID variants

WHO renamed COVID variants after Greek letters to avoid confusion with scientific names and to prevent discrimination (mainly against Chinese)

eponyms

a person after whom a discovery, invention, place, etc., is named or thought to be named (Alzheimer's Disease, Wilm's tumor). They don’t tell anything about the disease or condition itself, only the individual associated with it.

infection

Invasion by and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms in a bodily part or tissue

subclinical disease

no noticeable signs or symptoms (inapparent infection)

clinical disease

signs and symptoms are apparent/observable

preclinical disease

disease that is not yet clinically apparent but is destined to progress to clinical disease

local infection

infection limited to a small area of the body (body part or organ)

systemic infection

infection spreads to several sites and tissue fluids usually in the bloodstream

focal infection

when infectious agent breaks loose from a local infection and is carried to other tissues

primary infection

initial infection within a patient

secondary infection

infections that follow a primary infection, often by opportunistic pathogens

opportunistic pathogens

pathogen that can cause disease when the host's immune system is compromised

acute infectious disease

disease in which symptoms develop rapidly and that runs its course quickly

chronic infectious disease

disease with symptoms that develop slowly and last a long time

latent infectious disease

disease that appears a long time after infection

communicable infectious disease

disease transmitted from one host to another

contagious infectious disease

communicable disease that's easily spread

non-communicable infectious disease

disease arising from outside of hosts or from opportunistic pathogen

types of direct transmission of disease

touch, bodily fluids, direct projection of droplet spray

types of indirect transmission of disease

fomites (inanimate objects), airborne, waterborne/foodborne transmission (pathogens on water, food), fecal contamination of food/water

function of N95/KN95 masks

reduce airborne transmission of disease

surface disinfectants and hand sanitizers

reduce the spread of infections by killing or removing pathogens from surfaces and hands, preventing the transmission of diseases through contact with fomites

size of virus-laden droplets and aerosols

larger aerosols are within 5-100 μm, larger droplets are larger than 100 μm

S-I-R compartment model of disease

S = Susceptible: not yet infected

I = Infectious: capable of spreading

R = Recovered/removed: immune; no spreading

R0 (basic reproduction number)

Represents how many people in an unprotected population an initial case (infected individual) could pass the disease along to

factors that influence R0 value

Duration of infectious period

Probability of infecting susceptible individual during one contact

Number of susceptible individuals contacted per unit of time

herd immunity

The resistance of a group to an attack by a disease to which a large proportion of the members of the group are immune (in the recovered/removed group)

how vaccination affects populations (S-I-R)

vaccination moves individuals from the Susceptible group to Recovered/Removed

childhood diseases (vaccine-preventable) list

Measles, Mumps, Rubella, Polio, Whooping Cough, Diphtheria

Groups most at risk of measles complications

Children younger than 5 years of age; Adults older than 20 years of age; Pregnant women; People with compromised immune systems, such as from leukemia or HIV

MMR vaccine

vaccination to protect against mumps, measles and rubella

Disneyland measles outbreak

in 2014, a person infected with measles spread the virus to unvaccinated visitors, causing many outbreaks across many states

epidemic prevention using R0 via herd immunity

calculate (1 - 1/(R0)) * 100 to find what percentage of a population would need to be immune (herd immunity)

measles herd immunity with R0

R0 for measles is 12-18. For the higher bound, do (1 - 1/(18)) * 100 and find that 94% of a population would need to be immune (vaccinated) to prevent an epidemic.

MMR/autism controversy

The MMR vaccine was thought to cause autism due to a fraudulent research study by Andrew Wakefield so people were avoiding it

Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on measles worldwide

Due to the pandemic in 2021, 40 million children missed a measles vaccine dose, leading to 128,000 measles deaths that year

impact of tuberculosis throughout history

evidence of TB was found in an Egyptian mummy dating to about 600 BC

different names for tuberculosis

Phthisis - ancient Greece

Scrofula (TB of lymph nodes in neck) - Middle Ages

King's Evil (cured by the Monarch's touch) - Middle Ages

White plague (paleness) - 1700s

Pott's disease (TB of spine) - 1799

Consumption (weight loss) - 1800s

Koch's disease (Robert Koch)

TB and the Industrial Revolution

Due to severe overcrowding, poor air quality, unhygienic conditions, and poor ventilation, TB was rampant (cause of 25% of all deaths)

Old suspected causes (etiologies) for TB

Thought to be hereditary (since it occurred among family)

Thought to be vampires

World TB Day is on...

March 24th

Sanatoriums and the sanatorium movement

Sanatoriums were facilities where TB patients were treated with fresh air, rest, and good nutrition. They were meant to isolate TB patients from the general population, preventing the spread of the disease and providing a healthier environment to aid in recovery.

U.S. public healtheducation about TB

People were told to simply cover coughs and sneezes. TB death rates in the US declined as the 20th century went on.

National Tuberculosis Association/American Lung Association

Launched massive education campaign known as the "crusade" against tuberculosis. Their message was that TB is a communicable disease that can be prevented by careful hygiene

Christmas Seals

Christmas Seals are special stamps sold during the holiday season to raise funds for the fight against tuberculosis (TB). Introduced in the U.S. in 1907 by Emily Bissell, the campaign supported sanatoriums, public health education, and research.

public spitting and tuberculosis

Public spitting was strongly frowned upon in the 20th century, as tuberculosis is transmitted in this way

Mycobacterium species list

M. tuberculosis, M. bovis (causes TB in cattle and can also infect humans), and M. leprae (causal agent of leprosy)

alveoli

tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood

alveolar macrophage

immune system cell of the alveolus that removes debris and pathogens

phagocytosis

Cell eating (alveolar macrophages engulf TB bacteria and try to kill them, but due to TB's waxy cell wall, it survives)

mycolic acids

waxy cell wall of M. tuberculosis bacteria that protects it from alveolar macrophages

granuloma/tubercle

a collection of macrophages trying to wall off the infected alveolar macrophage

Tuberculin skin test (TST)

Used to determine past or present tuberculosis infection present in the body. This is based on a positive skin reaction to the introduction of a purified protein derivative (PPD) of the tubercle bacilli, called tuberculin, into the skin.

TB Blood Test Interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs)

Preferred method for people who have received the TB vaccine (BCG) and people who have a difficult time returning for a second appointment to read TST

chest x-ray for active pulmonary TB diagnosis

Used to differentiate between active pulmonary TB and latent TB

Cavitation

Cavitation in the lungs is a condition where a hollow space forms within the lung tissue as seen in a chest X-Ray

Computer-Aided Detection software (CAD)

World Health Organization recommends using it to interpret chest X-rays for TB screening

sputum (phlegm) smear

A sputum smear is a laboratory test that examines a sputum sample under a microscope to detect the presence of bacteria (TB) but can have false-negative results

Ziehl-Neelsen (acid-fast) staining

A method to identify bacteria in a sputum smear by staining bacteria with a bright red color against a blue background.

sputum culture

sputum culture is a lab test to find germs (such as TB bacteria) that can cause an infection. A sample of sputum is added to a substance that promotes the growth of bacteria (takes 2-6 weeks)

nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) of sputum

Recommended by WHO to help diagnose TB by detecting the genetic material (DNA) of tuberculosis in a sputum sample. These tests provide a rapid and accurate diagnosis, helping to confirm TB infection faster than culture methods.

major antibiotics for latent and active TB (RIPE)

Rifampin

Isoniazid

Pyrazinamide

Ethambutol

pill burden

term used to describe the number of pills a patient takes and its associated burden (360 for RIPE)