im so tired let me pass and it be over

Neuroendocrine system

Neurons causes release of neurotransmitters which need receptors. Endocrine glands release hormones which need receptors

Neurotransmitter

Epinephrine from a neuron

Hormone

Epinephrine from the adrenal medulla

Endocrine

Makes hormones, ductless glands, and hormones generally travel great distances to have their effect

Autocrine

Similar to endocrine except they have their effects on the very same cell that produces them

PAracrine

Similar to endocrine except they have their effects nearby. Just a few cells away

Exocrine

Secrete products into lumen of organs via ducts. Digestive, enzymes, tears, mucus, bicarbonate ion, sweat, oils, wax

Hormones

Chemical signaling molecules. Produced by the endocrine glands. Secreted directly into the blood stream. Travels through the blood to distant tissues and organs. Bind to specific cell sites called receptors

Cytokine

Small hormone molecules with pleiotropic functions. Produced by many cell types. Influence and regulate the function of immune system, embryonic development. Signal through G proteins. Some pro inflammatory, some anti inflammatory

Chemokine

Cytokines, regulate movement/migration of various immune cells

Chemotaxis

Chemically attracts cells to infection site

Amino acids

The basic building blocks of polypeptide chains/proteins

Peptide bonds

Covalent bonds which hold amino acids together

Peptide or polypeptide chain

Long chain or polymer of amino acids

Gene

A sequence of DNA nucleotides bases that carry the code or recipe for a polypeptide

Peptide

A small chain of linked amino acids

POlypeptide

a long chain of linked amino acids

Protein

a functional or mature protein. May consist of 1 or more poly peptide chains all tangled into a specific 3 demintional shape

protein based hormones

made up or amino acids or peptides`. water soluble, polar, hydrophilic, lipophobic, and receptors are usually on cell membrane

Amine hormones

Modified amino acids. dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine. from adrenal medulla.

Protein hormones

Made from multipipe amino acids connected in a chain linked by peptide bonds

Peptide hormones

Short chains of amino acids. antiduretic hormone, atrial natriuetic peptide

protein hormones

larger often with multiple polypeptide chains. Growth H, follicle stimulating h, luteinizing hormone, and human chorionic gonadotropin

Steroids

These hormones are complex ringed LIPID molecules. All of these hormones are derived from cholesterol. The receptors are in the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. Binds to the DNA to turn genes on or off. Crosses membranes easily (lipid).

types of steroids

Testosterone, cortisol, aldosterone, progesterone, testosterone from testes and estrogen from ovaries

Arachidonic acid based homrones

Comes from special phospholipids in the cell membrane to make long ringed fatty acids which are physiologically active

Eicosanoids

Group of compounds made from arachidonic acid

Prostandnoids

By changing arachidonic acid with cyclooxygenase.

Prostaglandins functions

Inflammation, pain (menstural, ovulatory, endometriosis) vasodilation, uterine contraction, steps in blood clotting, part of inducing anaphylaxis

Thromboxanes

Produced by platelets causing them to aggregate. Activates platelets initiating the clotting process. Causes vasoconstriction

Leukotrienes

Produced by leukocytes and mast cells. Causes inflammation and release of histamine and prostaglandins to increase inflammation

NSAID

NOn steroidal anti inflammatory drugs. Inhibit prostaglandin synthesis by inhibiting cyclooxygenaseA

Acetaminophen

Not an NSAID, unknown mechanism for pain and anti pyretic

Receptors

Hormones must have these in order to have their effects. Must be in either the cell membrane, cytoplasm, or in nucleoplas,

Amino acid peptide protein hormone receptors

Usually on cell membrane

Steroid hormone receptors

Usually in cytoplasm or nucleoplasm. They form dimers in the nucleus which will directly bid to the two sides of DNA to activate or deactivate various genes

Signal transduction

When a hormone binds to its receptor on the cell membrane, there is a series of reactions that follow that will reach deep into the nuclear to turn some genes on and some off in order to get the effect of the hormones.

Cyclic AMP system

Uses a cyclic form of adenosine monophosphate. Hormone binds to its receptors, which activates G protein, which activates adenylate cyclase, which produces cAMP, which activates protein kinase A.

G protein

membrane protein

GTP

Guanosine triphosphate activates G protein

GDP

Guanosine diphosphate deactivates G protein

GTP

turns the G protein on and GDP turns it off

cAMP

Second messenger. A cytoplasmic protein which turns many reactions on or off

Phosphodiesterase

An enzyme that destroys cAMP thereby turning it off

PIP₂

Calcium signal system. HOrmone binds to its receptor. receptor activates the G protein, which binds to phospholipase C, which splits this into DAG and IP₃

DAG

activates the enzyime protein kinase C continues the signal transduction

IP3

Causes the release of calcium ions. Ca++ acts by activating even more kinase enzymes.

Calmodulin

a protein activated by the calcium ions above which itself activates other proteins

Up regulation

increasing the number of receptors in the cell membrane in order to make the cell much more sensitive to the hormones.

Down regulation

Decreasing the number in the cell membrane in order to make the cells much less sensitive to the hormones.

Synergistic effect

2 or more hormones produce an effect that is greater than the sum of their individual effects

Permissive action

1 hormone makes the target organ much more sensitive to another hormone

Estrogen

Causes up regulation of progesterone receptors in the uterus making it much more sensitive to progesterone

Antagonistic effect

2 hormones have opposite effects insulin lowers plasma glucagon increases plasma glucose levels

Tropins

Hormones that stimulate the release of another hormone, often referred to as stimulatory or excitatory hormones

Statins

Hormones that inhibit the release of another hormone, often referred to as inhibitory hormone

Gonadotropin releasing hormones

Causes the release of the 2 gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary

Anterior pituitary gland

Follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone

female FSH

Causes ovarian follicles granulosa cells to activate the aromatase enzyme which changes testosterone into estrogen

Male FSH

stimulates spermatogenesis

Female LH

Stimulates ovulation

Male LH

Stimulates Leydig cells of the testes to produce testosterone

Hypothalamic hypophyseal gonadal axis

The relationship between the hypothalamus hypophysis and the gonads. Disruption at any level can result in disease

Negative feedback loops

Occurs at various levels of the axis. Hypothalamus releases GnRH which causes the adenohypophysis to release FSH and LH which causes the ovaries to make estrogen testes to make testosterone

Thyrotropin releasing hormone

Stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release thyroid stimulating hormone.

Thyroid stimulating hormone

Causes the thyroids follicular cells to release T4 from colloid.

Estrogen

Regulates secondary sexual characteristics and uterus

Thyroxin or T4

From follicular cells. thisi s the inactive form and is converted to the active form in the target cells. Increases metabolism generally, therefore increases heat production, calorie burning

Calcitonin

From parafollicular cells of thyroid gland, activates osteoblastic deposition of bone, therefore decreases plasma calcium levels

Parathyroid glands

Produces parathyroid hormone. Activates osteoclastic resorption of bone, therefore increases Plasma Ca++ levels. causes reabsorption of Ca++ and excretion of phosphate by the kidneys. Activates vitamin D which causes an increase in the absorption of Ca++ and phosphate by the intestines

Pro opiomelanocortin

A humangous protein which is chopped up in various ways

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Cortisol from adrenal cortex

Beta endorphin

Endogenous opiate. Causes runner’s high, reduces pain

Enkephalin

another endogenous opiate

Adrenal cortex

Outer layer

Zona glomerulosa

outer 1/3 of the adrenal cortex. Mineralocorticoids

Aldosterone

water retention

Zona fasciculate

Middle 1/3 of the adrenal cortex. Glucocorticoid

Cortisol

Steroid hormone in the glucocorticoid subclass of hormones. Produced in the zona fasciculata sublayer of the adrenal cortex. Released in response to stress, physical, pathological, emotional. Increases blood glucose levels and counteracts insulin. suppresses immune system, anti inflammatory.

Zona reticularis

Deepest 1/3 or the adrenal cortex. Sex steroids. Mostly androgens like testosterone and small amounts of estrogen.

Adrenal medulla

innter part which produces catecholamines. Fight or flight or sympathetic hormones aka adrenergic hormones. Epinephrine and norepinephrine causes blood pressure to increase by general vasoconstriction, increased SOG for the heart, and increased heart rate

Cortisol blood pressure

Upregulates epinephrine receptors, making the body more responsive. Causes general vasoconstriction, causing increase blood pressure. Has an anti diuretic effect with sodium retention and potassium loss

Cortisol reproductive

High levels interfere with reproduction causing infertility/miscarriage. decreases calcium absorption, bone formation. Inhibits collagen formation thus increasing plasma amino acid levels. Increases gastric acid production.

Hypothalamus releasing hormones

Prolactin releasing hormone, growth hormone, somatostatin, dopamineA

Anterior pituitary gland

Prolactin, growth hormone

Prolactin

Stimulates lactation, production of milk and inhibited by dopamine

Antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin

Systemic vasoconstriction so Bp and water retention increases

Oxytocin

Causes uterine contraction as seen during labor. Causes milk let down

Antidiuretic hormone or vasopressin

Made by hypothalamus, stored and released from the posterior pituitary gland. ADH is the primary hormone responsible for tonicity homeostasis and bp control

Hyperosmolar states

Most strongly triggers its released to initiate water retention to dilute the hyperosmolar conditions closer to isotonic state

Vasopressin functions

Promotes reabsorption in the kidneys to return hyperosmolar state to isomolar state. Vasoconstriction

Mechanism of action

When bp drops or blood becomes hypertonic, adh turns on Protein synthesis in the kidneys to increase the number of water channels in the renal tubules allowing more water to be returned to the circulatory system. One of the most powerful vasoconstrictors in the body which causes increase in bp

ADH released

Antiotensin II, pain, nausea, hypoglycemia, nicotine, opiates, and certain medications.

ADH inhibited

ENathol

Calcitriol

Vitamin D3 from kidneys increases absorption of calcium and phosphate by intestines making these available to bones

Renin

From kidneys fro the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Erythropoietin

From kidneys for blood production

Leptin

From adipocytes inhibits appetite

Pancreas

In the islets of langerhans

Alpha cells

Produce glucagon, increases plasma glucose from hepatic glycogen sources