ap bio

hydrogen bonds

water’s intermolecular attractions

increase in h+ ions

decrease in pH

Organic compounds have ____atoms

carbon

glycosidic linkage=bond between two____

monosaccharides

common polysaccharides

starch, cellulose, glycogen

properties of water

cohesion, adhesion, excellent solvent, solid is less dense than liquid, specific heat

functions of lipids

Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine

carbohydrates are made of

C, H, O

proteins are made of

CHON

nucleic acids are made of

CHONP

secondary structure of protein

alpha helix and beta pleated sheet

tertiary structure of protein

3D shape of protein

chaperone proteins

assist in folding other proteins

cells need a \___ surface area to volume ratio

large

peroxisomes

Break down fatty acids and produce hydrogen peroxide

smooth er function

lipid synthesis and detoxification

cristae

folds in the inner membrane of mitochondria

microtubules

Thick hollow tubes that make up the cilia, flagella, and spindle fibers.

microfilaments

form cleavage furrow, help movement

Centrioles

Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only

centrosome

microtubule organizing center

facilitated diffusion

requires hydrophilic protein channel

countercurrent exchange

the opposite flow of adjacent fluids that maximizes transfer rates; for example, blood in the gills flows in the opposite direction in which water passes over the gills, maximizing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide loss.

hypertonic

Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution.

Hypotonic

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution

aquaporins

affect the rate of water diffusion

exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

reception

The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.

Transduction

converted to a form that can bring about a cellular response

response

a reaction to a stimulus

camp

second messenger

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)

plasma membrane receptors that work with the help of a G protein

hydrophobic chemical messengers

can readily cross the membrane and activate receptors

kinetochore

A disc-shaped protein on the centromere that attaches the chromatid to the mitotic spindle during cell division

cell cycle phases

G1, S, G2, M, Cytokinesis

microtubule organizing center (MTOC)

serves same function for plant cells

1. prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

2. metaphase

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

3. anaphase

sister chromatids separate

4. telophase

division of two daughter cells occurs, nuclear membrane reappears

cytokineses

division of the cytoplasm

Contact (density dependent) inhibition

crowded cells stop dividing

prophase 1

synapsis, crossing over, chiasmata visible

metaphase 1

Paired homologous chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

anaphase 1

Homologous chromosomes separate

telophase 1, cytokinesis

Cytoplasm divides, 2 daughter cells are formed

cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)

a regulatory protein that depends upon the presence of cyclin to complete its function, MPF is a Cdk that triggers a cell's passage into the M phase

noncompetitive inhibitors

bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective

krebs cycle take place in

matrix of mitochondria

Acetyl CoA

Acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.

nad+ and fad

electron carriers

Chemiosmosis

A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme.

reduction reaction

a chemical change in which electrons are gained

oxidation reaction

loss of electrons

oxidative phosphorylation

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration.

Carotenoids

An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis.

grana

stacks of thylakoids, light dependent reactions

stroma

light independents reactions take place

Photosystem 2 (P680)

Energy, with an average wavelength of 680 nm, is absorbed in this photosystem and transferred to electrons that move to a higher energy level

Photosystem 1 (P700)

Energy, with an average wavelength of 700 nm, is absorbed in this photosystem and transferred to electrons that move to a higher energy level

RuBP

ribulose biphosphate; a five-carbon carbohydrate that combines with CO2 to form two molecules of PGA in the first step of the Calvin Cylce

3-PGA (3-phosphoglycerate)

3-carbon molecule formed right after RuBisCo fixes a carbon because 6-carbon is unstable

Rubisco

Ribulose carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate).

c-3 plants

in these plants, the first step of the Calvin cycle has carbon dioxide fix to 3-PGA by the enzyme rubisco

C-4 plants

special adaptations to heat and dryness, corn, sugar cane, crab grass

law of independent assortment

the law that states that genes separate independently of one another in meiosis

epistasis

A type of gene interaction in which one gene alters the phenotypic effects of another gene that is independently inherited.

polygenic

trait controlled by two or more genes

linked genes

genes that are located on the same chromosome

chiasma

a physical bridge built around crossover

recombination

(genetics) a combining of genes or characters different from what they were in the parents

Polyploidy

condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes

purines

Adenine and Guanine

Pyrimidines

Cytosine and Thymine

Histones

protein molecules around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin

Telomeres

ends of chromosomes

alternative RNA splicing

A type of eukaryotic gene regulation at the RNA-processing level in which different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns.

stop codons

UAA, UAG, UGA

wobble

A violation of the base-pairing rules in that the third nucleotide (5' end) of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position (3' end) of a codon.

steps of translation

initiation, elongation, termination

reverse transcriptase

An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.

tryptophan operon

repressible operon

Inducible (Lac Operon)

An operon that is typically turned off by the presence of a repressor and requires the removal of a repressor by an inducer to be turned on

repressor

A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.

inducer binds to

repressor

positive gene regulation

regulatory protein interacts directly with the genome to switch transcription on

epigenetic inheritance

Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence.

Ratio of CHO in carbohydrates

1:2:1

all peptides will have an end with an

amino group

a polypeptide folds because

R groups are interacting with each other

tertiary structure

Results from interactions between side chains.

quaternary structure

diff polypeptide chains

ester linkage

the bond between a fatty acid and a glycerol that forms a lipid

Each Triglyceride is composed of...

one glycerol and three fatty acid chains

unsaturated fatty acid

double bond

phospholipid head

negatively charged, polar, hydrophilic

cholestorol

increases membrane fluidity

sugar phosphate phosphodiester bonds

nucleic acids

Integral proteins are

amphipathic

nucleolus

rRNA is made and ribosomes are assembles