Studied by 0 peopleUrbanisation
The growth of towns and cities and the proportion of people living in them.
Particularly rapid in the cities of newly industrialised countries (NICs) in Asia and South America
Urbanisation is due to:
A combination of rural-urban migration and the natural increase of population (when there are more births than deaths each year.)
NICs are characterised by
Rapid urban growth
Growth of manufacturing sector of economy
Strong international trading relationships
Operation of overseas-owned multinational companies within the country
Megacity
A city with a population of 10 million or more
Global cities
Cities which interact with other places at the global scale. They have a large sphere of influence. They can be connected to other places economically, politically, or socially/culturally.
Globalisation
The increasing connections between places and people across the planet, established through trade, politics and cultural exchanges, and helped by technology and transport.
Mumbai introduction (WHERE IS MUMBAI?)
Western coast of Maharashtra state in western India, bordering the Arabian Sea.
Mega-city, estimated population of over 21 million in 2024
Originally built on a low-lying island in the Arabian sea but has grown northwards and eastwards to form a large metropolitan region.
As it is on peninsular land it has access to the sea on two sides, making it a major port
Importance of Mumbai regionally and nationally
Around 3 million commute into Mumbai
Capital of its state Maharashtra
Highest percentage of internet access of any Indian city
Transport hub and major port - responsible for 70% of India’s maritime trade
25% of India’s industrial output
Well connected, very cheap rail journeys to and from city
Higher than average percentage of households with a computer and lower than average percentage of households without a bathroom (14% compared to Uttar Pradesh’s 45%)
What makes Mumbai a global city?
Culture: home of Bollywood with over 1600 Bollywood films produced annually
HQs, governance: Tata Steel, which employs in over 100 countries, has its HQ here
Finance and trade: World Trade Centres Association has a conference and hotel facility here to ‘promote international trade’
Transport: Mumbai International Airport handles nearly 1000 flights a day and serves countries across the globe
Why has Mumbai’s population grown?
Natural increase: If the fertility rate is above two then it is above replacement level so population will increase. The fertility rate in Maharashtra has fallen from 4 in 1974-82 to 1.8 in 2018 (access to contraception, choice). However fertility rates in Mumbai tend to be a little lower than in rural areas of the state.
Rural-urban migration: People in rural areas are attracted to the jobs and educational opportunities in Mumbai. They are pushed from rural areas due to the mechanisation of farming which has reduced jobs available, as well as poverty, and poor standard of living. This is all facilitated by the fact that India’s rail system has some of the lowest fares in the world - it costs ~£2.50 to travel to Kolkata from Mumbai. The most migrants come from Uttar Pradesh, a region in North India.
Migrants start families: Migrants tend to be young, and of child bearing age, so they start families in Mumbai and the natural increase may also increase.
Informal sector
Part of the economy that is not fully controlled by the government, with people often self employed or in small business. They don’t pay tax nor receive state protection or benefits such as sick pay. There is often no need for qualification. Mumbai has a thriving informal economy.
Urban challenges in Mumbai (TWSP)
Traffic: Over 3 million registered vehicles, set to increase; private vehicles up 57% in past 8 years, only 23% public buses. Indirectly encourage private vehicles by adding flyovers and expressways. Extremely busy rail system, at least nine deaths a day, can carry 3x intended number of passengers. Potential employees are being put off due to the travel times in getting to CBD due to congestion.
Waste disposal: 11,000 tonnes of solid waste a day. Landfills overburdened. Danger of fire, as ‘rag pickers’ ignite fires to burn waste to enable them to collect scrap metal easier. Waste ends up in waterways and pollutes it. No government mandated separation or recycling of waste.
Sewage: Over 40% of city not connected to sewer lines. No place to lay sewer connections or public toilets in slums. Higher risk of water-borne diseases, poor sanitation, Mithi River has over 16x safe amount of faecal matter in water yet some have to wash themselves in it. Existing sewers overloaded as it was designed for a population of 10 million less.
Pollution: Lots of toxic waste from unregulated industrial activity. Sewage often gets basic or no treatment and is just pumped into creeks or the coast. Mumbai’s coastline is one of the most polluted in the world. Fifth most polluted megacity in the world in terms of PM 10 levels. Toxic nitric oxide levels over 3x safe limit.
Urban challenges (WIHI)
Water shortage: Insufficient municipal water supply. Even people who can afford apartments order water tankers to deliver it. Led to illegal borewells being dug. In slums, water released in mornings for ~2 hours. Should be filtered and boiled to be safe enough to drink, but some cannot afford to do this. Houses with no water connection must rely on neighbours.
Informal economy: Estimated around 70% work in the informal sector (some estimates up to 90%.) and growing. Don’t pay tax. This reduces gov’s income so they have less to invest in services and infrastructure eg schools, hospitals, sanitation. Then in long term if children don’t get a sufficient education they are more likely to work informally. Informal wages are low, children are kept out of school to work (long term effect), unable to afford basic goods or save up money.
Housing: Property is extremely expensive with high competition as it’s so densely populated. 1 in 6 live in a slum (Dharavi is the largest.) It is a cheap and affordable option. Poor quality housing can put people at risk: overcrowded, poorly ventilated, poor sanitation, risk of flooding, collapse, fire. Living in an informal settlement means you have no fixed address. This can make it difficult to obtain official documents and training and get employed in the formal sector, contributing to the poverty cycle so it is very difficult to move out of the slums.
Inequality: Stark difference between rich and poor. Women are often treated poorer than men and there is quite a high rate of spousal violence in slums. The extremely poor conditions of the slums are contrasted by massive, multi-billion dollar personal residences such as Reliance Industries chairman Mukesh Ambani’s 27-storey home with helicopter pads, underground parking and requires 600 staff to run.
Benefits of the informal economy
Dharavi’s annual economic output estimated to be from 600 million to 1 billion USD.
Ragpickers recycle 80% of Mumbai’s waste and together contribute around 700million GBP to Mumbai’s economy each year.
Dharavi has a thriving community both economically and socially
Bottom up management
Lead by small organisations such as NGOs/charities, involving locals in decision making, often small scale.
Ensures that their specific needs can be properly met and accommodated, and they maintain their sense of community identity.
Examples of bottom up management in Dharavi
NGOs are helping some Dharavi residents get permission to install a new sewage system which will improve sanitation and living conditions
An NGO called SPARC is trying to involve local people in the design process of redeveloping the slums, collaborating with authorities, so that they do not lose their sense of community and home
Rehoming Dharavi residents often difficult because of the informal settlements and industries creating legal issues. They may find it hard to get a job if their previous work is no longer an option as they likely have no formal qualifications.
Top down management
Lead by a large organisation, often governments. Decisions made on behalf of others, often large scale.
May result in poorly planned solutions and destroying sense of community identity, which is vital to other positive elements eg. recycling scheme and informal manufacturing.
Examples of top-down management in Dharavi
Build rehabilitation blocks with access to water, electricity and sanitation
Relocate residents of slums in rehabilitation blocks and then redevelop the slum land into land that can be built on (this is very valuable land, good location between Mumbai's two main suburban railway lines), and build new housing complexes
Hope that the new influx of real estate will help to solve the housing crisis
Resistance among residents who view this more as displacement than rehabilitation, concerned about their small scale manufacturing/recycling businesses
Dharavi’s informal economy may be lost
Lots of congestion caused by building works, extremely large scale and difficult to coordinate to execute effectively
What makes London a global city?
Multicultural and diverse:
Approximately 37% of its population was born outside the UK.
Around 300 different languages are spoken and at least 14 different faiths practised.
Transport hub:
Over 100,000 flights a month in and out of London with global destinations.
Global economy:
Major global brands like Morgan Stanley and KMPG, based in financial district Canary Wharf
Around 40% of the world’s foreign equities are traded here
Exchange of ideas:
World’s top universities, eg Imperial, UCL
Estimated 400,000 professional creative minds, some of world’s most exceptional scientists and academics
Where is London?
Northern Hemisphere - Western Europe - England, UK - Southeast of England - on the River Thames
Why has London grown (in more recent times)?
Migration: People attracted to London from all over the world, good employment and educational opportunities, economic hub, creative jobs, West End
Natural Increase - population of London is relatively young, birth rate exceeds death rate. Enhanced by migration of young people.
Where are significant populations of migrants usually from and why?
India: After WW2, open-door immigration policy. Britain looked to former colonies for people to help reinvigorate economy
1950s and 60s saw a number of Indian immigrants arrive in UK, particularly those in medical field to meet demand for professionals due to establishment of NHS
Poland: Poland became a member of the EU in 2004 which allowed free movement for its citizens. Many chose to migrate to the UK (maybe due to better minimum wage)
Issues faced in London
Housing
Poverty
Pollution
London’s housing issue
In recent decades, London has excelled at creating jobs and opportunities but failed to build enough new houses for all the new people flocking to the city
A generation of Londoners cannot afford their rent; many are forced to live in overcrowded or unsuitable conditions due to affordability and lack of social houses
London property is extremely expensive as the city is such a good location with access to many services. Many flats are unaffordable to the average young adult as rent is often over 100% of their average monthly income.
Average private rents have risen more than average earnings
The construction of more affordable social housing by local authorities has decreased so there is a lack of affordable property for those on lower incomes
London’s poverty issue
Although persistent poverty in London children is lower than previous estimates, one in four children are growing up in persistent poverty
This is particularly an issue in some of the wards in Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Camden
Around one in nine London pensioners are living in material deprivation, unable to access the necessities for today’s society.
5% of Londoners live in a household that is in food insecurity.
This data is from the financial year ending March 2022
Poverty rates have been falling for all age groups and overall estimates fell to 25% of population
The cost of living is rising due to a combination of reasons (response to war in Ukraine, recovery from COVID-19 pandemic) which is exacerbating this issue
London Housing Strategy
Aims to address the housing shortage through an intensive use of London’s available land, focusing on more genuinely affordable housing and providing help for people feeling the effects of the housing crisis (private renters, homeless people/rough sleepers)
Formally adopted in 2018
In 2021/22, number of UK nationals seen sleeping rough fell by 23% compared to 2020/21
London’s pollution issue
Specifically in central London and touristy places, there is a lot of congestion on the road. This is also due to the fact that so many commute into London.
Marble Arch reaches over 5 times the limit of pollution set by the EU
This air pollution costs the NHS a lot of money as it may damage people’s lungs
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