ap psych unit 1

Glutamate

Most common excitatory neurotransmitter; enhances learning and memory by strengthening synaptic connections.

GABA (Gamma

Aminobutyric Acid)

Acetylcholine

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory; found in both central and peripheral nervous systems. Diminished function is associated with Alzheimer's disease. Blocked or destroyed in Myasthenia Gravis, causing muscle weakness and fatigue.

Dopamine

Linked to anticipation of pleasure and reward; involved in movement, attention, and learning. Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson's disease. Excess dopamine is associated with schizophrenia.

Serotonin

Plays a significant role in mood, appetite, sleep, and dreams. Low levels are associated with depression.

Norepinephrine

Involved in arousal, alertness, vigilance (heightened sensitivity to environment), and the sleep cycle. Low levels are associated with depression.

Endorphins

The body's natural painkiller; can be stimulated by intense and prolonged exercise. Helps with pain control and impacts pain tolerance.

Epinephrine (Adrenaline)

Both a neurotransmitter and hormone; boosts energy during fight or flight response. Helps with the body's response to high emotional situations and helps form memories.

Substance P

Helps transmit pain signals from sensory nerves to the central nervous system.

Adrenaline/Epinephrine

Helps with the body's response to high emotional situations and helps form memories. Expands air passages in the lungs, redistributes blood to muscles, and is involved in fight or flight response.

Leptin

Helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger; signals the brain that the body has stored enough fat or is not hungry anymore.

Ghrelin

Signals hunger; tells us that we're hungry.

Melatonin

Regulates sleep

Oxytocin

Produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland; known as the "love hormone"; involved in bonding and social connection.

Agonists

Enhance the actions of neurotransmitters in various ways; increase neurotransmitter activity.

Direct Agonists

Mimic neurotransmitters and bind with the receptor of the neuron; function like the actual neurotransmitter.

Indirect Agonists (Reuptake Inhibitors)

Block reuptake of a neurotransmitter, leaving more in the synapse to continue signaling; enhance neurotransmitter effects by preventing removal.

Antagonists

Inhibit the actions of neurotransmitters; bind to the receptor but don't activate it, blocking the neurotransmitter's effect.

Parkinson's Disease

Associated with lack of dopamine; causes movement difficulties, tremors, and muscle rigidity.

Schizophrenia

Associated with excess dopamine; characterized by hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking.

Alzheimer's Disease

Associated with diminished acetylcholine function; causes progressive memory loss and cognitive decline.

Depression

Associated with low levels of serotonin and/or norepinephrine; characterized by persistent sadness, loss of interest, and low energy.

Anxiety Disorders

Associated with GABA dysfunction; characterized by excessive worry, fear, and nervousness.

Multiple Sclerosis

Occurs when the myelin sheath is damaged, disrupting transmission of electrical signals; leads to muscle weakness, coordination problems, and fatigue.

Myasthenia Gravis

Autoimmune disorder that blocks or destroys acetylcholine receptors, preventing muscle contraction; causes muscle weakness and fatigue.

Medulla

Regulates autonomic functions like heart rate, breathing, blood pressure; regulates reflexes like swallowing, sneezing, and vomiting.

Pons

Bridge connecting brainstem to cerebellum; coordinates and integrates movement on each side of the body; critical in sleep and dream functions.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Network of nerves responsible for arousal, attention, and alertness.

Cerebellum

Coordinates sequences of movements, balance, and equilibrium; stores implicit memories (unconscious motor memories).

Thalamus

Sensory switchboard in the center of the brain; all senses except smell are redirected through the thalamus to the cortex.

Hypothalamus

Located below the thalamus; responsible for fight or flight, feeding (hunger/fullness), and sexual desire; regulates sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Amygdala

Small almond

Hippocampus

Converts short

Motor Cortex

Located in frontal lobe; initiates voluntary movement; body areas requiring precise movements get more tissue on the motor cortex.

Somatosensory Cortex

Located in parietal lobe; responsible for sense of touch; more sensitive body parts have more tissue devoted to them.

Primary Visual Cortex

Located in occipital lobe at the back of the brain; responsible for processing visual information; significant damage can cause blindness.

Primary Auditory Cortex

Located in temporal lobe; responsible for sense of hearing.

Broca's Area

Located in left hemisphere; responsible for expressive/speech

Wernicke's Area

Located in left hemisphere; responsible for receptive/comprehension functions; damage causes difficulty understanding language (Wernicke's aphasia).

Prefrontal Cortex

Located in frontal lobe; responsible for thinking, planning, decision making, and impulse control; undergoes reorganization from ages 18

Corpus Callosum

Bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres; allows communication between left and right sides of the brain.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experiences; includes forming new neural pathways.

Neurogenesis

The creation of new brain cells; increased by exercise and decreased by social isolation.

Long

Term Potentiation (LTP)

Functional Plasticity

The brain's ability to regain abilities by one hemisphere taking over the job of the other due to long

Reuptake

When the presynaptic neuron reuses neurotransmitters from the synapse; removes neurotransmitters from the synaptic gap.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse that travels down the axon when a neuron fires; occurs when the neuron reaches threshold.

Resting Potential

The state of a neuron when it is not firing; polarized with positive ions outside and negative ions inside.

Depolarization

When a neuron fires and becomes negative outside and positive inside; reversal of electrical charge.

Repolarization

When the neuron returns to resting potential after firing; channels open to allow positive ions outside the cell membrane.

Refractory Period

Period when the cell cannot fire until repolarization occurs and it returns to resting potential.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential; must be reached for neuron to fire.

Synapse/Synaptic Gap

The space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another; where neurotransmitters cross.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Make the next neuron more likely to fire; increase the probability of action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Make the next neuron less likely to fire; decrease the probability of action potential.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty coating around some axons that allows messages to travel faster; damage causes Multiple Sclerosis.

Circadian Rhythm

The sleep

NREM 1

First stage of sleep with alpha waves; light sleep where you transition from wakefulness.

NREM 2

Second stage of sleep with theta waves; deeper than NREM 1.

NREM 3

Deepest stage of sleep with delta waves; heart rate, blood pressure, and temperature decrease; gets shorter throughout the night.

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep with beta waves; high internal brain activity, increased heart rate and body temperature, but outer muscles are paralyzed; associated with vivid dreaming; gets longer throughout the night.

Restoration Theory of Sleep

Sleep is necessary to restore hormones, neurotransmitters, and energy used during the day; helps restore and repair brain tissue and supports growth.

Memory Consolidation Theory of Sleep

Sleep helps restore and rebuild memories of the day's experiences; memory consolidation occurs during REM sleep.

Energy Conservation Theory of Sleep

Evolutionary approach suggesting sleep protects us and conserves energy when we don't need to be active; allows us to sleep when it's dark and be awake when it's light.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Brain structure that causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production in response to light.

Pineal Gland

Releases melatonin to calm us down and promote sleep; activated by the hypothalamus as adenosine builds up.