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Epimers
Sugars that differ in configuration at only one specific carbon atom.
Enantiomers
Stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other.
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrate polymers made up of many monosaccharide units.
Disaccharides
Sugars formed from the combination of two monosaccharides through glycosidic bonds.
Glycosidic bond
Covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group.
Cyclic forms of D-Glucose
The two forms (alpha and beta) of glucose formed through a reaction between the aldehyde and hydroxyl groups.
Pyranoses
Six-membered ring forms of sugars that result from the reaction of a hydroxyl group with a keto group.
Furanoses
Five-membered ring forms of sugars that result from the reaction of a hydroxyl group at C-5 with a keto group.
Haworth perspective formulas
A more accurate representation of cyclic sugar structures than Fischer projections.
O-glycosidic bond
A covalent bond joining two monosaccharides through their hydroxyl groups.
Reducing end
The end of a sugar chain where the free anomeric carbon is located.
Homopolysaccharides
Polysaccharides made up of only one type of monosaccharide.
Heteropolysaccharides
Polysaccharides made up of two or more different monosaccharides.
Glycoproteins
Proteins that have oligosaccharide chains covalently attached.
Glycosaminoglycans
Heteropolysaccharides in the extracellular matrix consisting of repeating disaccharide units.
Metabolism
The sum of all biochemical processes that occur within a living organism.
Catabolism
The metabolic process that breaks down molecules to release energy.
Anabolism
The metabolic process that builds up molecules, requiring energy.
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
The primary energy carrier in cells.
Photosynthesis
The process by which green plants use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.
Glycolysis
The first step in glucose metabolism where glucose is broken down to pyruvate.
Krebs cycle
A series of reactions in the mitochondria that produce energy through the oxidation of acetate.
Electron transport chain
A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons and pump protons to generate ATP.
Thermodynamics
The branch of physics that deals with the relationships and conversions between heat and other forms of energy.