Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottomans, Islamic Heartlands & Qing China

Jannisaries

A member of Turkish soldiers forming the Sultan's guards between the 14th and 19th centuries. They were enslaved and conquered from educated Christian territories, converted to Islam and trained for the purpose of serving the Sultan.

Ayan

Class of wealthy people who held authority over towns and districts under Ottoman / Abbasid rule. They were referred to as elites, and resided in the cities or countryside and emerged during early Abbasid rule.

Sultan Selim III

Sultan of the Ottoman empire from 1789 - 1807. He was considered an enlightened ruler and was imprisoned by the Janissaries. He was the first to institute modern reforms and make changes to the army and navy. He also attempted to set up administrative structures as a means of increasing and enhancing state power. He was the last effort to reform the empire.

Ulama

Muslim religious scholars and chief religious authorities. Often served as teachers, judges and preachers. They were trained in Islamic law and made to interpret Islamic sciences, doctrines, and laws. Their purpose was to uphold Islamic faith and maintain spiritual and intellectual history within the community.

Wahabbis

A member of a strictly orthodox Sunni Muslim sect from Saudi Arabia. They believe in the purification of the religion, reject Islamic theology and call for strict adherence and interpretation of the Koran and Hadiths.

Sultan Mahmud II

Sultan of the Ottoman empire. He instituted extensive administrative, military and fiscal reforms. He destroyed the power of the janissaries and their allies. He was a trailblazer with the Tanzimat reforms within the Ottoman empire and his work was carried out by his sons.

Young Turks / The Ottoman Society for Union and Progress

Someone eager for radical reform under the Ottoman empire and carried out the revolution of 1908 and forcefully got rid of the sultan Abdul Hamid II. Favored the replacement of the absolute monarchy during the Ottoman empire to a constitutional monarchy.

The Tanzimat Reforms

Sought to establish legal and social equality for all Ottoman citizens. Inspired by Western culture, it wanted to modernize the Ottoman empire. Included the introduction of a constitution, educational systems, railways and various extreme legal reforms.

Sultan Abdul Hamid

The last sultan of the Ottoman empire to exert effective control over the state. First proclaimed a new constitution, but then threw away this constitution and disbanded the parliament - (wanted a return to despotic absolutism), and restricted civil liberties. He was eventually overthrown by a coup. He was anti - reform and advocated for a traditional Ottoman lifestyle.

Fez

Tarboosh, a usually red hat with a black tassel on top. It was brimless and made of felt in the shape of a truncated cone. It was worn by Christians and morally Muslims in the Ottoman - Balkan area.

Turkification

The policies and attitudes that emphasize Turkish policies, culture, and language. This ideology was promoted by the Young Turks and Turkish nationalists. This was a process of cultural change designed to make all citizens within the empire feel apart of the culture, heritage and society.

Congress of Berlin

A diplomatic conference to reorganize the states within the Balkan peninsula after the Russo - Turkish war where the Russians won against the Ottomans. Representatives from Germany, Russia, Hungary, Britain, France, and Italy all met together and this led to greater nationalism within these countries. (1878)

Russo - Turkish War

A conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian empire including Romania, Serbia and Montenegro. Conflict arose from a rise of nationalism within this Balkan area and the Russians wanted to recover its territorial losses, establishing themselves in the Black Sea. The goal as well was to free the Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire.

Mural

A large wall painting applied directly to the wall or the surface of a ceiling.

Mamluks

A slave soldier who was a member of an army established during the Abbasid era. They were Turkish slave soldiers and won political control of Muslim states during the Middle Ages. Mamluk generals used their power to establish and rule over Egypt and Syria.

Muhammad Ali

The Ottoman - Albanian governor who was widely considered the founder of modern Egypt. He was a military commander sent to recover Egypt from French occupation under Napoleon. By using the power left in Egypt, he founded the Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan in 1805, which was continued on by his descendants. Had imperial ambitions.

Khedive

Honorific title of Turkish viceroys and princes of Egypt.

Suez Canal

Sea level waterway in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, dividing Africa and Asia. The British occupied Egypt to monitor economic activity within the area.

Muhammad Abduh

Egyptian Islamic scholar, and judge. Disciple of al - Afghani, Islamic thinker in Egypt, stressed the need for the adoption of Western scientific learning and technology. Recognized the importance of rational inquiry within Islam.

Ahmad Orabi

Student of Muhammad Abduh, and Egyptian military officer. He led a revolt in 1882 against the Egyptian government and Turkish influence in the Egyptian army. He was defeated when the Khedive called the British army for support and was sent to the British colony of now Sri Lanka.

Khartoum

The capital city of Sudan that was the administrative center for Egyptian authority.

Muhammad Ahmad

Sudanese religious and political leader. Given the nickname, Mahdi and led a war against Egyptian rule in Sudan. He was the head of this Sudanic Sufi brotherhood and claimed descent from prophet Muhammad. He proclaimed the British and Egyptians as infidels and launched a revolt to rid Islam of its impurities. He was also known off resisting British expansion in North Africa.

Mahdi

Someone who will emerge at the end of time in Islam and establish peace and justice. Considered the long awaited savior.

Khalifa Abdallahi

Also known as "The Khalifa", was one of the principal followers of Muhammad Ahmad, claimed to be the Mahdi and built up a large audience. He was the successor of Muhammad Ahmad and was a leader of Mahdists in Sudan. He established a state in Sudan but was then defeated by British general Kitchener in 1898.

Qing Dynasty

The last imperial dynasty of China. Known for immense imperial and population growth. This dynasty was ruled by the Manchu people and incorporated more territories, and had extreme economic growth. They began to isolate themselves from Western culture and thought of themselves as the Middle Kingdom.

Sinification

Non Chinese cultural groups and societies become more assimilated into Chinese societies such as their culture, language, societal norms, and ethnic practices. Specifically the adaptation to become more Chinese, particularly practiced in Japan, Vietnam and Korea due to the large empire of Han.

Empress Cixi

Manchu noblewoman who controlled the Qing dynasty towards the end of its reign. She encouraged and promoted the Boxer Rebellion and brought a medieval empire into the modern age. (The banning of foot binding, reforming legal and educational systems, and outlawing barbaric punishments.)

Comprador

Wealthy group of Chinese merchants under the Qing dynasty who helped the economy prosper. They specialized on import - export trade on China's South coast which was one of the major ways China was connected to the outside world instead of isolated.

Lin Zexu

Chinese political philosopher and politician. Known for his role in the first Opium War. He was charged with stopping the Opium trade in southern China, and ordered the blockade of European trading areas in Canton. He was exiled after the Opium War. He however was accepted as a national hero for his stance against the British.

Extraterritoriality

The application of a nation's law to a person's conduct and property outside of their given nation. Often the exemption of the jurisdiction of local governments, then given the punishment of the hailing country. The foreign residents in the country living under laws of their native rather than the host country.

Taiping Rebellion

Chinese rebellion between the Qing dynasty and the citizens of China. The people rebelled because they were angered by their failure to protect against the Opium problem and interference of foreigners. They were led by Hong Xiuquan.

Boxer Rebellion

Anti foreign, Anti imperialist and Anti Christian uprising in North China. A secret society in China formed with the goal to drive out foreigners who they believed to be destroying their nation. This contributed to the downfall of China and this rebellion quickly ended by British troops.

Spheres of Influence

The claim by a state to exclusive or predominant control over a foreign area or territory. Countries are given some political and economic control but do not govern directly. Authority was split by European powers in China.

Economic Imperialism

One country having a lot of economic power or influence over others. A less developed but independent country controlled by other businesses and their interests rather than governments.

Open Door Policy

The protection and equal privileges for all countries trading with China, giving equal opportunities access for trade. Issued by U.S. secretary of state John Hay, all countries also get access to Chinese ports.

Self Strengthening Movement

The introduction of Western policies in China in attempt to renovate Chinese military, diplomatic, fiscal, and education policy. The goal was to protect the structure of the existing Qing dynasty with the hope that they could survive any foreign threats due to new technologies and ideologies from the West.

Chinese Exclusion Act

Restricted Chinese immigration to the U.S. Specifically, this barred Chinese laborers from coming to the U.S., but merchants, teachers, students and travelers were allowed as long as proper certification from the Chinese government was collected saying they were allowed to immigrate. First major ban against foreign groups immigration.

Puyi

The last emperor of Qing dynasty China. Controlled the empire when he was only 3 years old. Became the empire of Manchuria during the Japanese occupation.

Sun Yat - Sen

Chinese revolutionary statesman who is known for overthrowing the Qing dynasty and setting up the Republic of China. He was a nationalist and leader of the Guomindang and attempted to create a liberal democratic political movement but it ended with interference from military leaders. Ended the first conservative monarchy and was responsible for developing the first 3 principles to support the Chinese people - nationalism, democracy and livelihood.

Treaty of Nanjing

The treaty that ended the first Opium War, the first unequal treaty between China and foreign imperialist powers. China had to reimburse Britain for money spent during the war. The British got complete control over Hong Kong and were given 5 Chinese ports. Western nations were allowed to be a part of Chinese territory.

Hong Xiuquan

The leader of the Taiping Rebellion. He won millions to his unique form of Christianity as he claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus sent to establish a heavenly kingdom of great peace on earth.