farahs human bio ca1

50 yr old diabetic complains of decreased vision abnormally high levels of blood glucose found and eye examination revealed lens changes the doctor suspects the following condition

cataracts

50 yr old diabetic complains of decreased vision abnormally high levels of blood glucose found and eye examination revealed lens changes abnormally high levels of the following may have led to this condition

sorbitol

25 year old male is brought to the emergency room with loss of consciousness and altered sensorium on ecamination, he is found to have increased intercranial tension the following substance can be used to treat this condition

mannitol

general formula of carbohydrates

Cn(H2O)n

carbohydrates are __ or __

polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis

functions of carbohydrate include

energy 4kcal/gram glycogen - storage form nucleotide and nucleic acid constituent component of milk (lactose) structural component of cell cardiac glycosides antibiotics dietary fiber intravascular anticoagulant

how are carbohydrates classified

mono (3-9) di (2 mono units) oligo (3-10 mono units) poly (\>10 mono units)

can monosaccharides be hydrolyzed?

they cannot be further hydrolyzed

monosaccharide w/ the functional group aldehyde

aldose (e.g. glucose)

monosaccharide w/ keto functional group

ketose (e.g. fructose)

what are the two ways a monosaccharide can be represented

fischer or hayworth projection

hayworth projection depicted by a six membered ring

pyran, pyranose

hayworth projection depicted by a five membered ring

furan, furanose

assymeyric carbon

chiral center, connected to 4 different carbons

simplest monosaccharide w/ one assymetric carbon

glucosealdehyde

glucase has _ assymetrical carbons

4

stereoisomerism

same moleculal formula, different structutre

enantiomers

D&L forms determined ny carbon before alcohol group (before last) D form is physiologically significant

epimers

differ in configuration around a single carbon arom only in the position of the OH group

glucose and mannose are c_ epimers

c2 epimers

mannose and galactose are c_ epimers

c4

anomers

alpha (trans) & beta (cis) configurations 1st carbon defines anomers

properties of sugars

muta rotation (a,b,neutral) reducing properties (diabetes test) osazone formation sugar oxidation reduction to form alcohols glycosides ester formation

optical isomerism

when light goes through the solution, it rotates in a certain direction optical isomers is when the light rotates either towards the right (dextrorotary/+) or the left (levorotary/-) the compounds contain the same number and kinds of atoms, and bonds, but the direction the light rotates in is the difference

"benedict's test tests for"

galactosuria fructosuria lactosuria diabetes mellitus

reducing sugars are sugars that have a

free aldehyde or keto group at the anomeric catbon atom

lactosuria is present during

pregnancy

all sugars are reducing excluding

sucrose

a __ is a chiral carbon

assymetric carbon

mirror images of one another, cannot be superimposed, hydroxyl position with respect to terminal alcohol is whats changed

enantiomers

differ form one another in the configuration around a single carbon atom only in the position of the OH group

epimers e.g. glucose and mannose at c2 and glucose and galactose at c4

alpha and beta configs, alpha is trans and beta is cis

anomers

needle shaped osazone

glucose, mannose, and fructose

sun flower shaped crystal

maltose

glucose

fructose

mannose

maltose

differ in direction of rotation of polarized light

optical isomer, dextrorotary (+) and levorotary (-)

sugars that has a free aldehyde or keto group at anomeric carbon

reducing sugars

clinical applications of benedicts test

diabetes mellitus, lactosuria, galactosuria, and fructosuria

lactosuria is ususally present during

pregnancy

detoxufucation of bilirubin - glucose to glucoronic acid and galactose to galacturonic acid

oxidation of -CH2OH

sugar to aldonic acid

oxidation of -CHO

sugar to aldaric acid

oxidation of -CH2OH and -CHO of same sugar

reduction of aldehyde or keto group produces new

alcohol group

sugars containing one oxygen less than the parent molecule

deoxy sugars

condensation of –OH group at anomeric carbon of a monosaccharide with a second group which may or may not be a monosaccharide

glycosides

cardiac stimulant

digitonin

congestive cardiac failure (CCF)

digoxin

Hydroxyl group is replaced with amino group forming amino sugar

amino sugars

amino sugars

Important compounds found in connective tissues / Glucosamine - Galactosamine - Mannosamine

two monosaccharide units bound by a glycosidic bond

disaccharide

__ bonds are digestable by the body while __ bonds are not

alpha, beta

maltose

free aldehyde group/reducing sugar, two alpha glucose

middle man in acid and enzyme hydrolysis of starch

maltose

beta glucose and galactose residues, milk sugar, reducing sugar

lactose

inability to digest lactose

lactose intolerance - nausea, vomting, diarrhea, bloating, abdominal pain

hedgehog osazone

lactose

synthetic, non absorbable disaccharide

lactulose

lactulose clinical applications

treats constipation and hepatic encephalopathy

1 alpha glucpse + 1 beta fructose

sucrose

only sugar with no reducing properties

sucrose

invert sugar

sucrose with broken bonds between glucose and fructose / different pplane of rotation

oligosaccharides

moslt plant origin, 3-10 sugar units

Raffinose

Glucose+ Galactose+ Glucose

stachyose

2 Moles of galactose+Glucose+Fructose

polysaccharides

\>10 sugar units, homo or hetero

starch

homopolysaccharide, energy storage in plants, multiple units of alpha-D Glucose

starch components

Amylose - unbranched, blue color w/iodine Amylopectin - branched, violet color w/iodine

cellulose applications

role in diabetes, lipid profile, and constipation

exclusive to plants, beta-D glucose units linked by beta glycosidic linkage, dietary fiber

cellulose

glycogen

animal reserve of energy - repeated units of alpha-D-Glucose linked by glycosidic linkages - high conc. in liver, muscle, and brain

inulin

fructose polymer present in garlic and onion soluble in water assesses kidney function through GFR

dextrans

alpha d glucose polymer plasma expander increases blood volume when given as IV

dextrin

partially digested starch

dextrose

bedside glucose

chitin

N-acetyl-D-glucoseamine protective layer exoskeleton of some invertebrates

glycosaminoglycans are

heteropolysaccharides that ensure visco elasticity and are essential for locomotive system

GAGs are imp constituents of

ECM which is made up of cartilage ground substance tendon ligament vascular wall skin lung cornea

GAG functions

mechanical support, lubrication, cushioning

major classes of ECM

structural proteins specialized proteins proteoglycans GAGs

GAG synthesis occurs in __ and it is degraded by \___

synthesized in ER and modified in golgi / degraded by lysosomal enzymes

GAG’s are covalently attached to

protein forming proteoglycan

why are GAGs ideal for lubrication joints

Negative charge imparts high viscosity and low compressibility which makes them ideal for lubricating fluid in the joints.

constituents of GAGs

amino sugars, uronic acid

hyaluronic acid

Found in Synovial fluid; vitreous humor of eyes connective tissue, and forms gel around ovum. Only GAG not sulfated. Serves as a lubricant and shock absorbent in joints.

heparin

intracellular component of mast cells that line arteries of liver; lung & skin. Acts as an anticoagulant.

Chondroitin 4- and 6- sulfate

Most abundant GAG in the body Found in cartilage (Chondros); tendons ligaments; and aorta. Loss of Chondroitin sulfate from the cartilage causes osteoarthritis.

dermatan sulfate

Found in skin; blood vessels and heart valves

keratan sulfate

does not contain uronic acid. Found in cornea responsible for transparency of cornea.

accumulation of GAGs in interstitial tissue

interstitial edema due to destruction of GAGs in hypothyroidism

high carb to protein ration, found in ECM

proteoglycans

glycoproteins

carb of glycoprotein plays role in determining the part of the antigen molecule to which the antibody binds example: antibody

fabry disease

defective protein: alpha galactosidase A

gaucher disease

defective protein: beta glucosidaase

nieman-picks disease (A and B)

defective protein: sphingomyelinase

hurler, scheie disease (MPS 1)

defective protein: alpha iduronidase

hunter disease (MPS 2)

defective protein: iduronate 1 sulphatase

how LSDs (lysosomal storage disorders) are diagnosed

widespread of particular GAG in urine leads to excretion of GAG in urine cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide test detects GAG in urine