Human Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Study Guide

anatomy

the study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

physiology

the study of the function of a body part

chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

List structural levels from simplest to most complex

proton

in nucleus, positive charge

electron

in orbitals, negative charge

neutron

in nucleus, neutral charge

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

four most abundant elements in our bodies

contains carbon

what is the characteristic of all organic molecules?

carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid

what are the most important organic molecules?

homeostasis

maintaining a stable internal environment

negative feedback

acts the opposite way to stimuli

EX/ blood pressure, temperature, heart rate

positive feedback

exaggerates stimuli

EX/ child labor, blood clotting

receptor

cells that detect stimuli

afferent pathway

first pathway information is sent along

control center

determines the set point, which is the level/range at which the variable is to be maintained (CNS)

efferent pathway

second pathway information is sent along

effector organ

organs carrying out response to stimuli (muscles and glands)

urinary system

Regulates water levels in the body

endocrine system

Thyroid and adrenal glands

immune system

returns leaked fluid back to blood

cardiovascular system

Transports gases, wastes, and nutrients

nervous system

Fast and immediate communication and control

skeletal system

blood cell production

muscular system

facial expression and heat production

digestive system

Breaks large molecules down so they can be absorbed into the blood

respiratory system

Brings oxygen into the body and removes carbon dioxide

energy for cell to do work

What is the function of ATP?

(made of phosphate ribose, and adenine)

transcription

transfer of information, a segment of DNA called a gene is copied as RNA

translation

the language of nucleic acids is translated into the language of proteins

mRNA

carries protein information from the DNA in a cell's nucleus to the cell's cytoplasm

tRNA

serves as a link (or adaptor) between the mRNA molecule and the growing chain of amino acids that make up a protein

rRNA

serves as a location for protein synthesis. rRNA is the location in which mRNA and tRNA are able to come together to synthesize proteins

(interphase) G1, S, G2 (mitotic phase) mitosis, cytokinesis

Major phases of the cell cycle

telophase

metaphase

interphase

early prophase

anaphase

late prophase/prometaphase

plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm

three main components of cells

nucleus

stores genetic information (DNA)

ribosome

makes protein

mitochondria

makes energy (ATP)

golgi

sorts, modifies, and ships proteins

lysosome

removes unwanted material and waste (digesting)

rough ER

makes proteins for endomembrane system

smooth ER

Detoxifies the cell and makes lipids

active transport

the cell provides the metabolic energy needed to move substances across the cell membrane

• low to high

• requires ATP

passive transport

substances cross the membrane without any energy input from the cell

• high to low

• does not require ATP

simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

three examples of passive transport

phagocytosis

the cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material

• eating

• white blood cells

pinocytosis

a bit of infolding plasma membrane surrounds a very small volume of extracellular fluid containing dissolved particles

• drinking

exocytosis

materials move OUT of the cell by fusion of vesicles formed inside the cell with the plasma membrane

epithelial tissue

polarity

specialized contacts: tight junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes

connective tissue support: basement membrane

avascular

innervated

mitotically active

connective tissue proper, bone, cartilage, blood

4 main classes of connective tissue

collagen fiber

strength, prevents tears or separation from surrounding tissues (fiber)

elastic fiber

elasticity for lungs, blood vessels, and skin (fiber)

reticular fiber

support (fiber)

ground substance, fibers

What is matrix made up of?

skeletal muscle

Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells

obvious striations

Voluntary control

smooth muscle

Spindle shaped elongated, uni-nucleated cells

no striations

involuntary control

cardiac muscle

highly branched, uni-nucleated cells

striated

involuntary control

elastic cartilage

similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix

Location: external ear and epiglottis (blocks digestive/respiratory tract)

hyaline cartilage

gristle/smooth, is the most abundant cartilage in the body

Glassy and smooth

Supportive but pliable

Lots of fibers

Location: covers ends of long bones in joint cavities, ribs, nose, trachea, larynx, and bronchi

fibrocartilage

thickest collagen fibers

Absorbs shock

Location: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs of knee joints

epidermis (epithelial cells), dermis (dense connective), hypodermic (adipose)

three major layers of skin

stratum basale

• new cells being produces

• melanin is deposited into cells

• layer containing keratinocyte stem cells and melanocytes

stratum lucidum

• only present in thick skin

• cells are dead

stratum corneum

• thickest layer

• cells are dead

stratum granulouum

• cells start the process of keratinization

protects from sun damage

What is the function of melanin?

compact bone

hard/solid, outside of bones

structural unit is osteon

spongy bone

honeycomb, inside of bones

structural unit is trabeculae

osteoblast

forms bone

osteoclast

breaks down bone

lamellae

tubes of osteons

osteoid

the non-mineral, organic part of the bone matrix made of collagen and non-collagenous proteins

osteon

structural unit of compact bone

axial skeleton

made up of skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage

Forms the longitudinal axis of the body

Supports head, neck, and trunk

Protects the brain, spinal cord, and the organs in the thorax

appendicular skeleton

made up of bones that form the limbs and girdles

Function: Movement

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccyx

Types of bones of vertebral column in order

brain, spinal cord

Components of the central nervous system

cranial/spinal nerve, ganglia

Divisions of the peripheral nervous system

sensory neuron

carries information from body to CNS

• unipolar

motor neuron

carries information from CNS to body

• multipolar

association neuron

carries information between sensory and motor pathways

• multipolar

-70mV

what is the resting membrane potential of a neuron?

depolarization

whenever the charge inside the cell becomes less negative compared to the outside

• Charge inside the cell is moving closer to, and may exceed zero

• Na+ moving into the cell (making it more positive)

repolarization

after being depolarized, the cell returns to its polarized state of -70mV

• Charge decreases back to -70mV

• K+ leaves the cell, taking a positive charge with it (making it more negative)

hyperpolarization

whenever the charge inside the cell becomes more negative than it is at rest

• Cause: K pumps are sluggish, allowing too many positive ions to escape

Correction: Na/K pump

sarcolemma, ACH

Membrane of a muscle cell and the neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle cells

AChE

What enzyme is responsible for inactivating the neurotransmitter that activates muscle cells?

actin and myosin proteins slide

Know the protein interactions during the shortening of a sarcomere

ATP creatine phosphate, anaerobic glycolysis, aerobic glycolysis

The order energy pathways kick in during muscle contraction

agonist

(prime mover) muscle responsible for producing a given movement

• EX/ bicep in barbell curl

antagonist

opposes or reverses specific muscle movement

• EX/ tricep in barbell curl

synergist

helps prime movers by adding extra force to the same movement

• Reduces undesirable or unnecessary movement

dura mater, subdural space, arachnoid mater, subarachnoid space, pia mater, epidural space

meninges and spaces from outermost to innermost

choroid plexus, protection

What structure makes CSF? What are the functions of CSF?

contralateral

reflex on different side