Cumulative summative

Declaration of Independence

formal statement written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 declaring the freedom of the thirteen American colonies from Great Britain

Popular Sovereignty

the principle that a government derives its power from the consent of the people, primarily through their elected representatives

Federalism

a key constitutional principle that calls for the division or separation of power across local, state, and national levels of government

Bill of Rights

the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, which were added in 1789; protected rights include freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures

Republic (or Representative Democracy)

a form of government in which the power to govern comes not directly from the citizens but rather through representation by elected officials

Participatory Democracy

a model of democracy that emphasizes broad citizen participation in government and politics

Pluralist Democracy

a model of democracy that emphasizes the need for different organized groups to compete against each other in order to influence policy

Federalist No. 10

essay in which James Madison argued that the power of factions is best controlled through a republican form of government

Factions (or Interest Groups)

groups of like-minded people who try to influence the government and public policy

Elite Democracy

a model of democracy that emphasizes limited participation in politics and civil society

Direct Democracy

a form of democracy in which the citizens are able to personally decide on policy and governmental action

Articles of Confederation

the first governing document that attempted to establish a national government; they called for the individual states to maintain supreme power over a national government with restricted governing authority

Confederation

a form of government in which states hold power over a limited national government

Shays' Rebellion

an armed revolt that lasted for six months in January 1787; more than a thousand armed soldiers seized an arsenal in Massachusetts to protest high taxes and the loss of their farms due to debt; demonstrated the weakness of the current national government at the time

Constitutional Convention

assembly that convened in 1787 to revise the current governing document of the nation but that ultimately contrived an entirely new framework for a new federal form of government

U.S. Constitution

ratified in 1788, it established a federal form of government that distributed powers between a stronger central government and the individual states

Virginia Plan

a proposal made by Constitutional Convention delegates from large states, favoring congressional representation based on population size

New Jersey Plan

a proposal made by the Constitutional Convention delegates from small states, favoring a Congress with equal representation among all the states

Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)

an agreement by the framers that the House of Representatives would be the larger house of Congress and include members that were directly elected by the citizens to serve two-year terms and that the Senate would be the smaller house of Congress and include members who were appointed by state legislatures for six-year terms

Three-Fifths Compromise

a decision made during the Constitutional Convention to count each slave as a fraction of a person in a state's population for the purposes of determining the number of House of Representatives members and the distribution of taxes

Electoral College

an institution for electing the U.S. president in which each state is provided a certain number of votes equal to the number of its representatives plus the number of its senators

Federalists

group that favored a stronger central government that could manage the nation's debt, foreign policy, and other political affairs; supported the new Constitution

Anti-Federalists

opposed the development of a stronger central government, preferring instead for power to remain in the hands of state and local governments; opposed the new Constitution without a Bill of Rights

Brutus No. 1

a document that set forth the concern and fear that the central government would gain too much power, violating the individual rights and liberties of the citizens

The Federalist Papers

a set of essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay that contains arguments in favor of a strong national government

Ratification

an official authorization of a constitutional amendment, treaty, or other piece of legislation

Federal Mandates

official legal orders for the states to comply with federal (national) laws

Separation of Powers

the division of government power across the executive, legislative, and judicial branches

Checks and Balances

a system in which each branch of government has some power over the others in order to limit the abuse or accumulation of power by one branch

Federalist No. 51

essay written by James Madison to address concerns raised that the national government would grow too powerful; promoted the ratification of the Constitution; argued that the federal system and the separation of powers would prevent any one part of the government from becoming too powerful

Legislative Branch

branch of government that makes laws, regulates interstate and foreign commerce, controls taxation, creates spending policies, and oversees the other branches of government

Executive Branch

branch of government that carries out and enforces the laws; it consists of the president, vice president, Cabinet, executive departments, independent agencies, and other boards, commissions, and committees

Judicial Branch

branch of government, consisting of the U.S. Supreme Court and the federal court system, that provides interpretation and review of laws

Enumerated Powers (Expressed Powers)

powers that are expressly written in the Constitution

Implied Powers

powers supported by the Constitution that are not expressly stated in it

Necessary and Proper Clause

a statement in Article I of the Constitution giving Congress the implied power to expand the scope of its enumerated powers

Inherent Powers

powers that do not rely on specific clauses of the Constitution; usually these powers are in the area of foreign affairs and grow out of the very existence of the national government (e.g., the power to recognize foreign states)

Reserved Powers

powers that are neither delegated to the federal government nor denied to the states; these powers are not expressly listed in the Constitution but are rather guaranteed to the states by the Tenth Amendment

Concurrent Powers

powers that are those held by both the national and state governments

Tenth Amendment

gives state governments any powers that are neither delegated to the federal government nor denied to the states by the Constitution

Supremacy Clause

found in Article VI of the Constitution, this clause states that the Constitution and the laws and treaties made through it supersede state laws that contradict them

Dual Federalism

a concept of federalism in which national and state governments are seen as distinct entities providing separate services, thereby limiting the power of the national government

Cooperative Federalism

a concept of federal and state governmental units working together equally to make policy and to provide goods and services to citizens

Fiscal Federalism

a concept of federalism in which funding is appropriated by the federal government to the states with specific conditions attached

Categorical Grants

money from the federal government that comes with rules and restrictions on how it is used; the money must be used for a very specific purpose, such as improving public transportation

Block Grants

federal money given to states to achieve a general policy goal; states are given discretion on how to specifically allocate the money

McCulloch v. Maryland

landmark Supreme Court decision that affirmed the constitutionality of implied legislative powers by holding that the necessary and proper clause authorizes Congress to create a national bank; also established the supremacy of the U.S. Constitution and federal laws over state laws

Commerce Clause

found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution; gives Congress power to regulate international and interstate trade

United States v. Lopez

the Supreme Court ruled that the Gun-Free School Zones Act of 1990 was unconstitutional because Congress had exceeded its authority under the commerce clause

Senate

upper house of the U.S. national legislature, designed to represent state interests; this chamber consists of 100 members, two from each state

House of Representatives

lower house of the national legislature, designed to represent the people; this chamber consists of 435 members, with each state allotted a number of seats based on its population

Necessary and Proper Clause (repeated)

a statement in Article I of the Constitution giving Congress the implied power to expand the scope of its enumerated powers

Speaker of the House

formal presiding officer of the lower chamber of the national legislature; a position established by Article I of the Constitution and elected by the members of that chamber

Floor Leader

member of Congress elected by the party in power (in each chamber) to promote its legislative agenda, primarily by speaking with leaders of both parties of both houses, and the public

Whip

member of Congress elected by the party in power (of each chamber) to encourage fellow party members to support their party's legislative agenda

President of the Senate

the title used by the vice president of the United States in his or her role as the presiding officer of the upper chamber of Congress; a position established by Article I of the Constitution

Standing Committees

permanent legislative panels within the House and Senate, each with a dedicated policy focus and the authority to review proposed legislation and conduct oversight of the executive branch within its legislative jurisdiction

Select (or Special) Committees

special legislative panels that are created for a specific purpose, such as to review legislation that does not fall within the jurisdiction of an existing committee

Conference Committees

temporary legislative panels with members from both the House and Senate that are established to reconcile different versions of the same bill following its passage by both houses

House Rules Committee

the committee in the House that determines the procedures for debating a specific bill

Quorum

minimum number of legislators that must be present in order for a legislative body such as the House or Senate to hold votes or conduct other business

Discharge Petition

procedural mechanism in the House that can be used to move a bill that has stalled in committee to the floor of the House for a full vote

Cloture

process by which the Senate ends debate

Filibuster

act of blocking a vote in the Senate by speaking for an excessive length of time during debate

Unanimous Consent

parliamentary procedure used by the Senate in which it is assumed that all senators approve of an action unless an objection is raised

Hold

informal process by which a senator can prevent legislation from being considered by the full Senate

Discretionary Spending

government expenditures that are considered optional and can be added, modified, or eliminated each year during the annual budget process

Appropriation

the act of inserting a provision into a spending bill that allocates funding for a specific program

Pork Barrel Spending

type of funding specified for a localized program that primarily benefits the home district of the legislator who proposed the spending

Logrolling

informal bargaining that occurs between legislators who agree to trade votes on each other's legislation or amendments

Trustee Model

a model of political representation in which an elected representative is selected by the voters to use his or her own judgment, even when it conflicts with the voters' interests or preferences

Delegate Model

a model of political representation in which an elected representative is obligated to vote according to the interests or preferences of his or her constituents

Politico Model

a model of political representation that combines elements of different models and seeks to describe how elected representatives actually operate in practice in order to gain and maintain legislative influence

Gerrymandering

act of drawing the geographic boundaries for legislative districts in such a way that the party controlling the process gains a political advantage

Baker v. Carr

landmark Supreme Court decision that held that the Constitution implies a "one person, one vote" standard that requires legislative districts to have roughly equal populations; established gerrymandering as a "justiciable" issue

Shaw v. Reno

landmark Supreme Court decision that held that race cannot be used as a factor when drawing the boundary lines for legislative districts

Veto

ability of the president to reject a bill passed by Congress

Pocket Veto

passive rejection of legislation that occurs when the president does not formally sign or veto a bill and Congress is no longer in session when the president's deadline to do so expires (10 days)

Executive Agreements

formal international "deals" between the president and foreign leaders that do not require ratification by the Senate; can be rescinded by future president

Executive Order

formal directive issued by the president outside of the legislative process pursuant to the president's power to execute and enforce the laws; can be rescinded by future presidents

Federalist No. 70

an essay defending the decision to grant the executive power to a single official by creating the office of the presidency; published as part of a collection of essays written in support of the Constitution

Twenty-Second Amendment

Constitutional amendment that imposes a two-term (10 year) limit on the office of the presidency; (ratified in 1951)

Line-item Veto

ability of the president to reject specific provisions of a bill while signing others into law; currently not a recognized power

Bully Pulpit

term coined by Theodore Roosevelt to describe the president's ability to advocate for his or her policy agenda as a result of his or her unique position as the sole executive officer at the head of the federal government

Judicial Review

process by which courts are empowered to invalidate legislative and executive actions that violate the Constitution

Federalist No. 78

essay defending the power of the proposed new judiciary; published as part of a collection of essays written in support of the Constitution

Marbury v. Madison

landmark Supreme Court decision that formally established the federal court system's authority to engage in judicial review

Jurisdiction

authority of a court to hear or decide a certain type of case

Stare Decisis

judicial doctrine that requires judges to follow previous rulings, synonymous with adherence to precedent

Precedents

prior rulings that make an established body of case law

Judicial Activism

judicial philosophy that holds judges are not required to defer to elected officials or adhere to established precedent when engaging in judicial review; tendency is to find laws unconstitutional

Judicial Restraint

judicial philosophy that holds judges should defer to elected officials and/or established precedent when engaging in judicial review; tendency is to uphold laws

Original Jurisdiction

authority of a court to hear cases that are being tried for the first time; for the Supreme Court, its scope is fixed by the Constitution

Bureaucracy

umbrella term for the departments, agencies, commissions, government corporations, and other organizations that make up the administrative arm of the federal government; an extension of the executive branch

Patronage

practice of rewarding the president's political supporters with bureaucratic appointments; also known as "spoils system"

Merit System

practice of hiring and promoting federal employees based on their objective qualifications rather than their support of the president or their other political affiliations

Rule-making

formal procedure used by bureaucratic entities to produce federal regulations

Enabling Legislation

A law or a provision within a law that authorizes the bureaucracy to take a specific action (e.g., to make regulations to guide the implementation of a federal statute)

Civil Liberties

Constitutional freedoms guaranteed to all citizens

Civil Rights

the efforts of government to guarantee social freedom and equality among groups