WGS 291 Exam 2

Gender socialization

The internalization of the social expectations and attitudes associated with on’es perceived gender

Behavioral theories

Consider how aspects of the environment influence behavior, including gender development

Operant conditioning

Suggests that gender/sex develops when certain behaviors are reinforced and others are punished

Social learning theories

Suggest that learning takes place in a social setting even when children aren’t directly being reinforced or punished

Observational learning

Occurs when children learn from watching what others do

Gender buffet

Occurs when parents (especially LGBTQ+ parents) make explicit attempts to model and let their children explore different gender expressions

Cognitive development theory

Argues that children’s understanding of gender/sex develops corresponding to the development of cognitive skills; children are active participants in their attempts to understand and take on gender roles

Self socialization

Children’s progress of continually observing social cues in order to develop an understanding Of gender/sex and how they should actually behave; children quickly figure out that gender/sex is one of the most important variables in distinguishing people and then pick up associated characteristics

Gender labeling

The ability to identify someone’s gender and their own within gender/sex binary (around 30 months); after self labelling occurs kids act in accordance with gender/sex norms

Sources of gender socialization

Toys, families, peers, schools, the media

Gender segregation

Tendency for children to segregate on the basis of actual or perceived gender identity

Identity segregation

Preferences for socializing with peers of their same age, gender, and race

Hidden curriculum

The ways school environment indirectly teaches norms, beliefs, and values (eg. Dress codes enforced more for girls, black students disciplined more

Social support

A feeling of being cared for and having support and assistance from people around us, including family, friends, and romantic partners; consistently related to increased physical and mental health

Types of social support

Informational: giving advice or ideas to help people find strategies or resources to better cope with life events

Instrumental: providing tangible assistance in terms of money, goods, or services

Emotional: enabling others to feel nurtured and/or cared for

Benefits of friendship

• increased life satisfaction

• Improved health and well-being

• Better academic achievement

• Mitigate negative effects of discrimination

• Provide comfort following the loss of loved ones

Identity x friendships

We tend to form friendships with people who share our social identities and our interests, people tend to have more same-gender/sex friends than other gender/sex friends

Cross identity friendships promote flexibility in thinking by offering new perspectives; individuals with socially privileged identities are less likely to form these friendships

Dinner & Seligman (2002)

• recruited 222 college students at the U of Illinois

• Compared the upper 10% of consistently very happy people with average and very unhappy people

• The very happy people were highly social and had stronger romantic and other social relationships than other groups

PRESCRIPTIONs about romance via the media

P - partner is predestined

R - right away you know

E - expression not necessary

S - sexual perfection

C - centerfolds preferred (look like model to attract)

R - role of gender/real men (men = taller, more powerful, richer, older)

I - into a prince (love can change a man)

P - pugilism (fighting) = passion

T - totally opposite values fine

I - incomplete without mate

O - often, actors = roles

N - no effect (like this media doesn’t effect you)

Eaton & Rose (2011)

Reviewed all research on heterosexual dating published in Sex Roles journal 1975-2010; found

• dome changes in pattern like women asking out more

• But in general traditional gender-typed script was largely unchallenged and unchanged

Also found over consuming romantic media leads to less happy relationships and unreasonable expectations

Benefits of marriage

• stable source of social support, shared commitments, emotional connection

• Tax benefits

• Increased earnings

• Access to inheritance and social security + next of kin benefits

Wedding ring x misogyny

Financial inequity: ties a woman’s worth to a man’s spending power

One-sided marking: only women are social expected to wear engagement rings, functioning as a “claimed” status marker

Compulsory monogamy

Expectation that everyone, but especially women, should strive to find one partner to marry who can exclusively fulfill all desires, wants, and needs

Consensually non-monogamous relationships

Committed romantic relationships among partners who agree that they can have sexual and/or emotional commitments with other people

Polygamy

One husband having many wives; often tied to religious belief or cultural practices

Polyamorous relationships

Consensual romantic and or sexual relationships with multiple partners

Swinging

The practice of both partners in an emotionally committed relationships agreeing to and participating in sex with other individuals usually at the same time (like partner swapping)

Dating scripts

Descriptions of supposedly “normal” behaviors in the context of date; tend to be overwhelmingly heteronormative (eg. Who asks who, who pays, how it ends etc)

Open relationships

Usually take the form of one primary and emotionally exclusive relationship in which both partners freely consent to one of both partners having sexual relations but not emotional bonds with others

Precarious Masculinity Theory (Vandello & Bosson)

1. Masculinity is hard won - elusive and must be earned

2. Masculinity is easily lost - tenuous and must be routinely re-proven

3. Masculinity is public and determined by others - must be explicitly demonstrated

Masculinity as Anti-Femininity

Masculinity constructed as the complementary opposite of femininity, boys must repel anything considered culturally as feminine (includes emotion)

Masculinity threat

The experience of routinely having one’s masculine authenticity questioned, bu women or other men > lowers psychological well-being

Learned responses to masculinity threat

• bargaining - overemphasizing some more masculine traits

• Risk taking and dangerous behaviors

• Violence and aggression

The hierarchy of masculinity

1. Hegemonic masculinity: culturally dominant/ideal conception of masculinity

2. Complicit masculinity: dont fully embody dominant ideals but still benefit from patriarchal gender order

3. Marginalized masculinity: forms of male identity that are devalued or excluded from hegemonic ideal (usually related to race, class, sexuality etc)

4. Subordinate masculinity: defined by non conformity to hegemonic ideals of masc

Role of women in perpetuating hegemonic masculinity

girls and women socialized to contribute to the gender policing of boys and men

Often endorse and look for traits of hegemonic masculinity in their partners

Why?

Femininity is often tied to ability to find sufficiently asculine men

The manosphere

Relatively diverse community united over adherence to traditional or hegemonic conceptions of masculinity and frustration with women and kinship

• men’s rights activists (MRAs)

• Alphas

• Incels

• Men going their own way (MGTOW)

Objectification

The viewing of a person as an object to be looked at rather than as a full human being, women are commonly objectified through the male gaze and thru media that reinforces that perspective

Male gaze

Visual attention to women’s bodies that may come from a heterosexual man or that may represent internalization of the idea that women are sexual objects to be looked at for men’s pleasure

Objectification Theory (Fredrickson & Roberts 1997)

Theory that many women are sexually objectified and then acculturated to internalize such perspectives and view themselves as objects to be evaluated by others 9self-objectification)

Normative discontent

The idea that because body dissatisfaction is so common it is the normal state for women to be unhappy or dissatisfied with their bodies

Tripartite model of social influence

Combination of parents, peers, and the media constitutes the key influence on body image

Promotes thinness and symmetry and white racialized features are most valued.

Killing Us Softly advertisement points

1. Ads present unrealistic ideal image of woman

2. Women’s bodies are frequently treated as objects in ads

3. Particular attention is placed on breasts in ads

4. Women’s looks are often portrayed as her most important trait

5. Ads shame women for eating/what they eat

6. Sexualization of little girls and infantilization of adult women

7. Women encouraged to see sexualization as their own choice/empowermeneent

8. Double bind: women should be sexy yet innocent

9. Objectified women are shown as fragile/vulnerable compared to men portrayed as strong and powerful

10. Eroticized violence against women

Corpora Cavernosa

Becomes followed with blood and becomes stiff and rigid when man is sexually aroused which leads to an erection

Corpus spongiosum

Also fills with blood during arousal causing an erection but remains spongy and soft to keep urethra open for ejaculation

Mons Pubis

Fatty pad of tissue covering the junction on top of the pubic bone, covered in hair during puberty to demonstrate maturity and provide safety from infection and friction

Rowen et al. (2016)

Surveyed a bunch of women in the US and found that 84% engage in some public grooming, 62% had removed all at least once

59% said they did it for hygiene reasons but removal of public hair is actually linked to unhygienic shit like increased spreading of STDs

Labia majora + minora

Majora: outer lips, provide protection for clitoris, labia minora, and vagina

Minora: inner lips, often extend outward between major, remain closed to protect inner parts, when aroused open up and expose vaginal opening

Clitoral glans

Very sensitive to stimulation and is integral to sexual pleasure of people with clitorises, only external part of the greater clitoral structure

Corpora cavernosum (in clitoris)

Engorge/swell with blood when aroused, get rigid and erect/enlarge clitoris, delivers sensations to brain

Vestibular bulbs

Filled with blood when aroused to increase sensations in the area, stays spongy and soft, contracts rhythmically during orgasm

Vagina x balloon

Vagina is a canal that starts at the vaginal opening and extends up and tilts slightly backward toward the base of the spine, in unaroused state its like a deflated balloon, expands when aroused

Purpose of vaginal lubrication

When aroused heightened blood flow to vagina causes it to discharge clear liquid from walls

Functions of this:

Enhances likelihood of conception by alkalinizing vagina (which is naturally acidic)

Enhances sexual pleasure by preventing irritation and minor tears