Sensation, Perception, Memory & Cognition – Core Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms in sensation, perception, Gestalt principles, intelligence, language, memory, and cognitive psychology as presented in the lecture notes.

Prosopagnosia

A neurological disorder (face blindness) that prevents normal facial recognition despite intact vision.

Fusiform Gyrus

Brain area in the temporal lobe specialized for recognizing faces; malfunction causes prosopagnosia.

Sensation

Bottom-up process in which sensory receptors detect external stimuli and send signals to the brain.

Perception

Top-down process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory input, giving it meaning.

Absolute Threshold

Smallest intensity of a stimulus that can be detected 50 % of the time.

Signal Detection Theory

View that stimulus detection depends on stimulus strength plus psychological state

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation.

Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference)

Minimum change between two stimuli.

Weber’s Law

The ability to notice a difference is based on a percentage change, not an absolute amount.

Vision

Converts light energy into neural messages that the prain processes into images

visible light

small part of the electromagnetic spectrum

wavelength/frequency

determine hue aka color, short waves are bluish, long waves are reddish

amplitude determines

intensity/brightness

Cornea and Pupil

Light enter the eye

Lens

Focuses light into the retina

Retina

Converts ligt into neural impulses; contains rods and cones

Rods

• Function in low light and peripheral vision.

• Detect grayscale.

Cones

• Detect color and fine detail.

• Located mainly in the fovea (central retina).

• Work best in bright light.

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

• Retina has 3 types of cones (red, green, blue).

• All colors come from combinations of these.

• Explains colorblindness (often red-green deficiency).

Opponent-Process Theory

• Some neurons are stimulated by one color and inhibited by its opponent (e.g., red vs. green).

• Helps explain afterimages and certain color pairings.

Visual Processing Pathway

• After photoreceptors are triggered:

  • Bipolar cells activate → Ganglion cells activate.

  • Ganglion axons form the optic nerve → Sends signals to:

    • Thalamus → Occipital lobe’s visual cortex.

Visual Cortex

• Processes different features like:

  • Shape, angle, movement.

  • Has feature detectors specialized for these aspects.

Face vs. Object Perception:

• Face recognition handled by fusiform gyrus.

• Object recognition occurs in a different brain area.

Parallel Processing

• The brain processes form, color, motion, depth simultaneously.

• Allows for instant analysis of visual scenes (e.g., detecting a scary clown running).

Perceptual Set

a mental predisposition that affects what we perceive.

• Influenced by:

  • Expectations

  • Context

  • Culture

  • Emotions and motivation

Optical Illusions

• Reveal how perception can trick us.

• Examples like the identical tables illusion show how visual context can override accurate sensing.

• Important for studying how the brain processes form, depth, and space.

Form Perception and FIgure group Relationship

• The brain simplifies scenes by separating the figure (object of focus) from the ground (background).

• Can reverse based on perception (e.g., vase/faces illusion).

• Works in other senses too—like focusing on one voice in a noisy room (cocktail party effect).

Grouping Rules

The brain uses grouping principles to organize stimuli

Proximity

Objects close together are seen as belonging together

Continuity

We prefer smooth, continuous patterns over disjointed ones.

Closure

• We tend to fill in gaps to complete familiar objects.

• Example: Illusory triangle created by incomplete shapes.

Depth Perception

• Allows us to perceive the world in 3D, despite 2D input from the retinas.

• Partially innate—seen even in babies.

Retinal Disparity (both eyes)

• The brain compares the slightly different images from each eye.

  • Greater disparity = closer object.

Monocular Cues (one eye)

• Relative size: Smaller = farther.

• Interposition: Blocking objects are perceived as closer.

• Linear perspective: Parallel lines converge with distance.

• Texture gradient: Distant objects look smoother.

• Relative height: Higher in the visual field = farther away.

Brain infers motion by

• Shrinking = retreating

• Growing = approaching

• Large objects appear to move more slowly than small ones at the same speed.

• The brain can be easily deceived by motion cues.

Color constancy

Same object appears the same color under different lighting.

SHape constancy

Objects shape appears stable from various angles

Size constancy

Objects maintains perceived size regardless of distance

Gestalt principles

explain how our brains group and interpret visual elements.

Gestalt Principles- Proximity

• Definition: Objects that are close together are perceived as part of the same group.

• Example: Boxes equally spaced look like a large grid; change spacing vertically → we see columns, horizontally → we see rows.

• Key Insight: The actual shape doesn't matter. Even different objects (like random items arranged to look like an owl) can be perceived as a single entity based on proximity.

Gestalt Principles- Similarity

• Definition: Objects that look similar are grouped together.

• Example: A pie chart with different patterns—your brain picks out the “missing piece” based on pattern similarity.

• Difference from Proximity: In similarity, shapes are alike; in proximity, shapes can differ.

• Interaction: Proximity and similarity can work together to create stronger grouping cues.

Gestalt Principles- Common Fate

• Definition: Objects that move together are perceived as a group.

• Example: A flock of birds or school of fish appears as one unit when moving, though they are individuals at rest.

• Key Insight: Motion plays a major role. Still objects = random; moving together = unified.

Gestalt Principle – Good Continuation

• Definition: We prefer smooth, flowing lines and patterns over jagged, abrupt ones.

• Example: Two curved lines crossing—viewers perceive continuous paths rather than abrupt angle changes.

• Real-world use: Seen in advertising—designs guide the viewer’s eye smoothly (e.g., a swoosh drawing the eye to a product or logo).

Gestalt Principle – Closure

• Definition: The brain fills in missing information to see a complete object.

• Example: Circles with cut-outs suggest a square, even though there is no actual square.

• Key Insight: The brain doesn't need the full shape—it recognizes the implied form.

• Fun use: Design patterns that rely on negative space or incomplete lines (e.g., penguin from blobs on pavement).

Relativity:

• Relationship between areas of space; typically, smaller areas are perceived as figures against larger backgrounds.

  • If the smaller area is bordered completely, it's even more likely to be perceived as the figure.

  • But alignment (e.g., on X/Y axes) can flip the perception.

Figure-Ground

• Our ability to distinguish the main object (figure) from the background (ground).

  • Classic example: two faces vs. vase illusion.

  • Color and symmetry influence which part we perceive as figure.

  • Real-world example: The FedEx logo, where negative space between letters forms an arrow.

Law of Prägnanz (Simplicity)

• Definition: We tend to perceive the simplest, most stable shape possible.

• The brain prefers:

  • Simple over complex

  • Symmetrical over asymmetrical

  • Regular over irregular

• Examples:

  • Four dots form a square, not a cross (at first glance).

  • A shape with missing parts → perceived as Olympic rings, not partial circles or leaves.

• Key Insight: Our brains are wired for efficiency—they avoid mental overload by favoring the easiest interpretation.

Spearman’s G-Factor (General Intelligence)

Psychologist: Charles Spearman (early 1900s, British)

• Proposed that one overarching General Intelligence (G-Factor) underlies all mental abilities.

• Acknowledged that people have specific talents, but these fall under G.

• Developed factor analysis:

  • A statistical method to identify clusters of related skills (e.g., spatial and numeric reasoning).

  • Supported the idea that strong ability in one area often correlates with strength in others.

• G-Factor = "Uber-Factor" affecting all intelligent behaviors (e.g., architecture, healing, survival).

Criticism: Oversimplifies intelligence to a single number.

Thurston’es Primary Mental abilities

Psychologist: L.L. Thurstone (American, Psychometrics Pioneer)

• Criticized Spearman’s single scale ranking system.

• Created 56 tests to identify 7 mental ability clusters:

  1. Verbal comprehension

  2. Numerical ability

  3. Spatial relations

  4. Perceptual speed

  5. Word fluency

  6. Memory

  7. Inductive reasoning

• Found people performed well across multiple clusters, providing partial support for G-Factor.

Gardne’rs Multiple Intelligences

Psychologist: Howard Gardner

• Criticized the G-Factor model as too narrow.

• Argued that intelligence is multiple abilities across various domains.

• Based on:

  • Cases of brain damage affecting some abilities but not others.

  • Savants: people with one extraordinary skill (e.g., memory, math) but low overall function.

• Identified 8 Intelligences:

  1. Linguistic

  2. Logical-mathematical

  3. Musical

  4. Spatial

  5. Bodily-kinesthetic

  6. Interpersonal

  7. Intrapersonal

  8. Naturalistic

Sternberg’s triarchic Theory

Psychologist: Robert Sternberg

• Proposed 3 intelligences:

  1. Analytical intelligence (problem-solving, logic)

  2. Creative intelligence (adapting to new situations)

  3. Practical intelligence (everyday skills, “street smarts”)

• Like Gardner, emphasized diverse abilities, but more condensed.

• Supported application in education to value different talents.

Creativity and Divergent thinking

• Intelligence tests struggle to capture creativity.

• Creativity = ideas that are both novel and valuable.

• Divergent thinking: generating many possible solutions to a problem (e.g., "How many uses for a brick?")

• Sternberg’s 5 Components of Creativity:

  1. Expertise: broad, deep knowledge base.

  2. Imaginative thinking: ability to recognize patterns and connections.

  3. Venturesome personality: risk-taking, persistence.

  4. Intrinsic motivation: driven by interest, not reward.

  5. Creative environment: supportive, stimulating surroundings.

Example: Sherlock Holmes

• High in all creativity components but low in emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence

Psychologists: Peter Salovey & John Mayer (1997)

• Emotional intelligence (EQ): the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

• 4 Core Components:

  1. Perceiving emotions: recognizing feelings in people, music, art, stories.

  2. Understanding emotions: predicting emotions, seeing how they evolve.

  3. Managing emotions: expressing feelings appropriately.

  4. Using emotions: guiding problem-solving and creativity.

• No widely accepted standardized EQ test exists.

• Example: Sherlock = genius, but struggles socially due to low EQ.

Galton and Eugenics

Scientist: Francis Galton (1800s, cousin of Darwin)

• Applied natural selection ideas to intelligence.

• Believed intelligence was hereditary.

• Coined term “eugenics”: improving human population via controlled breeding.

• Advocated breeding smart people and discouraging reproduction in others.

• Dark implications:

  • Based on pseudoscience

  • Influenced forced sterilization and racial purity ideologies

Binet and Simons Mental Age Test

Psychologists: Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon (early 1900s, France)

• Developed tests for mental age to help schoolchildren in newly mandatory schooling.

• Goal: identify students needing extra help, not to label or rank.

• Binet believed intelligence was not fixed and could improve with effort.

• Feared misuse of his test for labeling and discrimination—his fear was realized.

William Sterns IQ Formula

Psychologist: William Stern (Germany)

• Created the Intelligence Quotient (IQ):IQ=(Chronological AgeMental Age)×100

  IQ=(Mental AgeChronological Age)×100\text{IQ} = \left(\frac{\text{Mental Age}}{\text{Chronological Age}}\right) \times 100

• Example:

  • Bruno: 6 years old, mental age 6 → IQ = 100

  • Betty: 4 years old, mental age 5 → IQ = 125

• Works for children, but flawed for adults (e.g., mental age of 34 vs. 35 is meaningless).

Intelligence Testing and Eugenics in the U.S.

Psychologist: Lewis Terman (Stanford)

• Adapted Binet’s test into Stanford-Binet IQ Test.

• Used it to label people and support eugenic ideas.

• IQ testing was used to:

  • Screen WWI army recruits

  • Test immigrants at Ellis Island

  • Justify forced sterilization in the U.S. (~60,000 people)

    • Targeted poor white women, unwed mothers, sex workers

    • Continued into the 1970s, especially affecting women of color

Nazi Germany and IQ Tests

• Nazis used IQ testing to justify:

  • Sterilization

  • Mass executions

• Tests asked culturally biased questions (e.g., "What does Christmas signify?")

• Reinforced racial and social norms under false science.

• Eugenics was central to Nazi ideology of racial purity.

Retinal Disparity

Binocular depth cue based on the brain’s comparison of the two eyes’ images; greater disparity = closer object.

Relative Size

Monocular cue in which smaller retinal images are perceived as farther away.

Interposition

Monocular cue where a blocking object appears closer than the object it overlaps.

Linear Perspective

Monocular depth cue; parallel lines appear to converge with distance.

Texture Gradient

Monocular cue; detailed texture is seen as closer, smoother texture as farther.

Relative Height

Objects higher in the visual field are perceived as more distant.

Motion Perception

Brain process that infers movement from shrinking, growing, or shifting images; prone to illusion.

Perceptual Constancy

Tendency to perceive objects as unchanging despite variations in illumination, angle, or distance.

Color Constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color under varying lighting.

Shape Constancy

Recognizing an object’s shape as constant even when its retinal image changes.

Size Constancy

Perceiving an object as maintaining size despite distance changes.

Bi-Stable Image

Visual stimulus that allows two valid, alternating interpretations (e.g., spinning ballerina).

Hollow-Face Illusion

Perception of a concave mask as a normal convex face due to top-down expectations.

Top-Down Processing

Interpretation driven by experience, expectations, and knowledge.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that starts with sensory input and builds up to complex interpretation.

G-Factor (General Intelligence)

Spearman’s single underlying factor that influences performance across cognitive tasks.

Factor Analysis

Statistical method that identifies clusters of related abilities, supporting the G-factor concept.

Primary Mental Abilities

Thurstone’s seven clusters of intellect such as verbal comprehension and spatial relations.

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner’s theory of eight distinct intelligences (e.g., musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal).

Triarchic Theory

Sternberg’s model of analytical, creative, and practical intelligences.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible solutions; key component of creativity.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.

Eugenics

Discredited movement advocating controlled breeding to improve human traits, often tied to intelligence testing.

Mental Age

Binet’s measure of intellectual performance expressed as the chronological age typical for that level.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

Stern’s formula: (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100; compares individual performance to age norms.

Stanford-Binet Test

Terman’s U.S. adaptation of Binet’s intelligence test; widely used IQ assessment.

Savant

Individual with limited overall functioning but an extraordinary specific ability.

Creativity

Production of ideas that are both novel and valuable.

Phoneme

Smallest distinct sound unit in a language (e.g., “sh”).

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaning in language (e.g., “pre-”, “dog”).

Grammar

System of rules that enables communication by ordering words and morphemes meaningfully.

Receptive Language

Ability to understand spoken, written, or signed language.

Productive Language

Ability to produce words and communicate meaning.

Babbling Stage

Infant language stage (≈4 months) of spontaneous, universal speech sounds.

One-Word Stage

Around 12 months; child speaks single meaningful words.

Two-Word Stage

Around 24 months; telegraphic speech combining noun + verb (e.g., “Want juice”).

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Learning language via association, imitation, and reinforcement.

Universal Grammar (Chomsky)

Innate set of linguistic rules shared by all humans, enabling rapid language acquisition.

Aphasia

Language impairment caused by brain damage (stroke, injury, etc.).

Broca’s Area

Left frontal‐lobe region that controls speech production; damage causes expressive aphasia.

Wernicke’s Area

Left temporal-lobe region for language comprehension; damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech.