History Edexcel modern medicine

What was life expectancy like by 1900?

By 1900 life expectancy was starting to increase

Could most families afford medical care in 1900?

No

How had attitudes to germ theory changed by 1900?

There was now wider acceptance of Pasteur's germ theory.

What happened to older medical theories by 1900?

Ideas about miasma and the Four Humours were no longer believed - medicine was now firmly rooted in science.

How had government attitudes to public health changed?

The old "laissez-faire" attitude to public health was dying out.

What did scientists realise about the causes of all diseases?

Scientists realised that microbes did not cause all disease - some people were born with illnesses or conditions which were hereditary (passed on from parents).

What did Mendel discover about inheritance?

By 1900 a German scientist called Mendel had theorised that genes come in pairs (the fundamental laws of inheritance).

Why couldn't scientists prove Mendel's theory initially?

Microscopes weren't powerful enough to identify gene pairs.

What did scientists think passed on characteristics from parents to children?

Scientists thought that a substance in human cells passed on information from one person to the next.

Who discovered what this substance actually was?

In 1953

What shape did Watson and Crick discover DNA to be?

They discovered that DNA is shaped as a double helix.

Who else helped Watson and Crick discover DNA structure?

Their structure of DNA was based on close-up x-ray images produced by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.

Why was understanding DNA structure important for medicine?

Scientists could now identify the parts that caused hereditary diseases.

When was the Human Genome Project launched and by whom?

In 1990

What was the aim of the Human Genome Project?

To identify the complete set (over 3 billion pairs) of DNA which makes up human beings.

How long did the Human Genome Project take to complete?

It took hundreds of scientists from 18 countries over ten years to complete.

How can knowledge of the human genome help prevent disease?

Scientists can use this 'blueprint' to look for mistakes in the DNA of people with hereditary diseases.

Give an example of how genetic knowledge helps prevent disease.

Scientists have identified a gene sometimes present in breast cancer sufferers. People can get tested for this gene

What happened to understanding of lifestyle and health in the 20th century?

People gained a better understanding of how lifestyle choices affect health.

When did smoking become more popular?

Smoking became more popular from the 1920s

What health conditions can smoking cause?

Smoking can cause cancer

What dietary factors can affect health?

Sugar and fat should be eaten in moderation

How can alcohol affect health?

Too much alcohol can damage the liver.

What other modern lifestyle factors can damage health?

Unprotected sex

How has modern technology changed diagnosis?

Modern technology means that doctors no longer have to use surgery to diagnose all diseases.

When were blood pressure monitors developed and what do they diagnose?

Blood pressure monitors were developed in the 1880s to diagnose high and low blood pressure.

When were X-rays developed and what can they do?

X-rays were developed in the 1890s and help to see inside the human body without surgery.

When were ECGs developed and what do they track?

ECGs were developed in the 1900s and use electrical impulses to track heart activity.

What are endoscopes and when were they developed?

Endoscopes were developed in the 1900s - they are cameras on the end of thin

When were blood tests developed and why are they useful?

Blood tests were developed in the 1930s for testing conditions without invasive surgery.

What are ultrasound scans and when were they developed?

Ultrasound scans (sonograms) were developed in the 1940s and diagnose things like gall and kidney stones by using sound waves to create a picture.

When was blood sugar monitoring developed and who benefits from it?

Blood sugar monitoring was developed in the 1960s and allows diabetes sufferers to monitor blood sugar levels regularly.

What are CT scans and when were they developed?

CT scans were developed in the 1970s and are a more advanced form of x-rays

What are MRI scans and how do they work?

MRI scans were developed in the 1970s and diagnose soft tissue injuries by using radio waves and magnets to create an internal image of the body.

What were magic bullets?

Magic bullets were chemical cures which attacked disease-causing microbes

Who developed the first magic bullet?

Paul Ehrlich (a member of Robert Koch's research team) developed the first magic bullet in 1909.

How did Ehrlich develop his magic bullet?

He tested hundreds of arsenic compounds

What was Ehrlich's magic bullet called?

This became known as Salvarsan 606.

What was the problem with Salvarsan 606?

Salvarsan 606 could also kill the patient

Who discovered Prontosil and when?

In 1932

How did Domagk test Prontosil on humans?

He found it worked on humans too after he was forced to try it out on his ill daughter.

What is an antibiotic?

An antibiotic is a treatment that kills or limits the growth of bacteria in the body.

What was the first antibiotic?

The first antibiotic was penicillin.

How are antibiotics different from magic bullets?

Penicillin is different to magic bullets because it is created using microorganisms

Who discovered penicillin and when?

British doctor Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin by chance in 1928.

How did Fleming accidentally discover penicillin?

Penicillin spores had floated in through a window and landed on a petri dish of bacteria he had been growing.

What did Fleming notice about penicillin?

Fleming noticed that the penicillin mould had killed off the harmful bacteria in the dish.

Why didn't Fleming develop penicillin further initially?

Fleming didn't believe it could work to kill bacteria in living people

Who continued Fleming's work and when?

In 1940

What problem did Florey and Chain face?

It took a long time for them to grow enough penicillin to treat a human.

Who did Florey and Chain first test penicillin on?

By 1941 they experimented on a local policeman with septicaemia.

What happened to their first human patient?

The penicillin worked well - but they soon ran out of it

Why wouldn't British companies mass-produce penicillin at first?

British companies were concentrating on the war effort.

Which countries helped mass-produce penicillin?

In 1941 some American firms agreed to start production. The US government gave funding to 21 companies. In 1943

When was there enough penicillin for widespread military use?

In 1944

What recognition did the penicillin discoverers receive?

Fleming

What modern problem exists with antibiotics?

One problem is the development of penicillin-resistant bacteria

How have modern drugs been improved?

Advances in science have allowed scientists to develop medicines which treat specific diseases.

How long do drug trials take now and why?

Drug trials now take several years - this slows progress

What was the thalidomide disaster?

A famous mistake was the use of thalidomide to treat morning sickness in the 1960s

How have drugs become more easily available?

Mass production

How was the bleeding problem in surgery solved?

The problem of bleeding during surgery was solved by blood transfusions.

Who made blood transfusions possible and when?

Karl Landsteiner identified the first blood groups in 1900.

When were blood banks first used?

Blood banks were first used in the First World War

When was the first kidney transplant performed?

The first kidney transplant was performed in 1956.

When were the first lung and liver transplants performed?

The first lung transplant was in 1963 and liver transplant in 1967.

When was the first heart transplant performed?

The first heart transplant was in 1967.

What modern surgical techniques have been developed?

Modern techniques include keyhole surgery and robotic surgery.

What is keyhole surgery?

a way of doing surgery without making a large incision in the skin. surgeons make a smaller incision in the patient and insert a tiny video camera and specialised medical instruments through the incision into the body

How have anaesthetics improved since the 1930s?

Since the 1930s

Why were people keen to improve society after WW2?

Many people who housed evacuees in the war were shocked by how unhealthy some city children were.

When was the NHS launched?

The NHS was launched by the government in 1948.

Who oversaw the launch of the NHS?

It was overseen by Minister of Health Aneurin Bevan.

What was the aim of the NHS?

To provide free medical care for everyone in Britain

How was the NHS funded?

It was paid for by everybody through National Insurance contributions.

What report inspired the NHS?

It was partly inspired by a 1942 report by William Beveridge

What did the NHS take over initially?

The NHS took over existing hospitals and surgeries.

Why didn't healthcare quality improve immediately?

The government could not afford to update hospitals and surgeries initially.

How did the NHS improve access to healthcare?

In the short term access to medical care improved because GPs and hospitals were now available to everyone.

What improvements were made to the NHS in the 1960s?

The government built more hospitals across the country

What problems does the modern NHS face?

Increased life expectancy and a larger population has created problems including longer waiting times and increasing costs.

How did government attitudes to prevention change in the 20th century?

The government took significant action to improve public health. There was no longer a "laissez-faire" attitude.

What was the first government vaccination campaign?

The first government vaccination campaign was for diphtheria in 1942.

Why was the diphtheria vaccination introduced?

It was feared the cramped conditions in air-raid shelters during the war could lead to an epidemic.

What was the result of the diphtheria vaccination?

Diphtheria cases plummeted.

When was the polio vaccination introduced?

The polio vaccination was introduced in the 1950s.

Why was uptake of the polio vaccination slow initially?

Take-up for the vaccination was slow at first.

What event made the polio vaccination popular?

England footballer Jeff Hall died of polio in 1959.

Why did Jeff Hall's death increase demand for polio vaccination?

Because he was young

How high was demand for polio vaccination after Jeff Hall's death?

Demand became so high that extra supplies had to be flown in from America.

Which government passed early social health reforms?

The Liberal government of 1906-14 passed a series of social reforms.

What health reforms were introduced between 1906-1911?

Free school meals (1906)

What event prompted these early government health reforms?

During the Boer War (1899-1902) a third of army volunteers were rejected because of ill health.

When were the Clean Air Acts passed and why?

The Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968

What food packaging law was introduced?

Dietary information must be displayed on food packaging.

When was smoking banned in enclosed workplaces?

In 2007

What restrictions exist on cigarette advertising and packaging?

Cigarettes cannot be advertised

What types of advertising campaigns does the government run?

Advertising campaigns which warn about the dangers of smoking

What is Stoptober?

An event which encourages people to stop smoking.

What is Change4Life?

An initiative which encourages healthier eating.