ethics test 1

objectivism

The theory that moral truths exist and that they do so independently of what individuals or societies think of them.

cultural relativism

The view that an action is morally right if one’s culture approves of it.

subjective relativism

The view that an action is morally right if one approves of it

emotivism

The view that moral utterances are neither true nor false but are expressions of emotions or attitudes.(noncognitivist view)

noncognitivism

moral judgements are not statements that can be true or false

cognitivism

moral judgements are statements that can be true or false

absolutism

view that objective principles are rigid and doesn’t allow for exceptions depending on circumstances 6

ethical controversy

an issue involving at least 2 seemingly irreconcilable positions which involves endorsing one set of values while sacrificing another

axiology

study of moral value (Axia=worth and logos=science or reason)

value holism

a value which counts as a reason in 1 case may not count as reason in others

situationism

changes in situations can change not only our view of the issues, but also our behaviors

metaphysics

study of what is real

epistemology

the theory of knowledge

phenomenon

objects as they appear

noumenon

objects as themselves, apart from limitations of human experience

testimonial knowledge

knowledge from other people

empirical knowledge

knowledge from experiences and senses (observation and a theory)

objectivity

strict adherence to truth-conducive methods in one’s thinking, taking into account all available info and avoiding any prejudice, bias, or wishful thinking

subjectivism

theory that perception or consciousness is reality

Dunning-Kruger effect

The common human failing of being ignorant of how ignorant we are.

Motivated reasoning

Reasoning for the purpose of supporting a predetermined conclusion, not to uncover the truth.

availability error

tendency to rely on evidence not because it’s reliable but because it’s vivid or memorable

confirmation bias

To pay attention only to evidence that confirms our beliefs while ignoring opposing evidence

Hasty generalization

mistake of drawing a conclusion about an entire group of people or things based on an undersized sample of the group.

Appeal to the person

fallacy of arguing that a claim should be rejected solely because of the characteristics of the person who makes it.

straw man

misrepresenting someone’s claim or argument so it can be more easily refuted.

Appeal to Ignorance

This fallacy consists of arguing that the absence of evidence entitles us to believe a claim

faulty analogy

type of inductive argument that says because two things are alike in some ways, they must be alike in some additional way

slippery slope

fallacy that uses dubious premises to argue that doing a particular action will inevitably lead to other actions that will result in disaster, so that first action should not be done

appeal to emotion

a fallacy of using emotions alone as substitutes for premises

appeal to authority

fallacy that consists of relying on the opinion of someone thought to be an expert who is not.

equivocation

fallacy that assigns two different meanings to the same term in an argument

begging the question (circular reasoning)

fallacy of trying to use a statement as both a premise in an argument and the conclusion of that argument

fallacy of accident

when an attempt is made to apply a general rule to all situations, when clearly there are exceptions to the rule

Ad Hominem

refers to an attempt to undermine an argument with a personal attack

guilt by association (ad hominem)

attacks a person by attacking the person’s associates. deduces a false characteristic by association with a true characteristic

to quoque (ad hominem)

attacks an arguer’s position by pointing out an arguer’s possible hypocrisy

poisoning the well (ad hominem)

preemptive attack on a person to discredit their testimony or argument in advance of their giving it. essentially, to create bias or prejudice against them to undermine the argument

red herring fallacy

attempt to redirect the argument to an issue that’s easier to respond to

bandwagon

if you suggest that someone’s claim is correct simply because it’s what most everyone is coming to believe

argument from popularity

if you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is correct simply because it is what most everyone beleives or if you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is mistaken simply because it is not what most everyone believes

false dichotomy (dilemma)

a reasoner who unfairly presents too few choices and then implies that a choice must be made among this short menu of choices

naturalistic

any attempt to argue from an “is” to an “ought”, that is, to argue directly from a list of facts to a claim about what ought to be done

fallacies

common bad arguments

nonmoral statements

assert that a state of affairs is actual (true or false) but do not assign a moral value to it

moral statement

statement affirming that an action is right or wrong or that a person (or one’s motive or character) is good or bad

conditional arguments

If p, then q. aka modus ponens or modus tollens (always valid)

cogent

a strong argument with true premises

sound

A valid argument with true premises

inductive arguments

offers only probable support for their conclusions.

deductive arguments

gives logically conclusive support to their conclusions

indicator words

terms that often appear in arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion may be nearby

conclusion

the statement being supported in an argument

premises

the supporting statements in an argument

argument

a group of statements, one of which is supposed to be supported by the rest

statement

assertion that something is or is not the case

valid argument

consists of true premises and valid reasoning

invalid argument

if an argument consists of a true premises and a false conclusion

counterexample

an example or story which grants the truth of the premises while denying the truth of the conclusion