AP World History All Chapters Key Terms

Islam

A monotheistic Abrahamic religion that originated in the 7th century CE, centered on the Quran as the literal word of Allah and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad; divided into Sunni and Shiite

Abbasid Dynasty

The third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad, ruling from 750 to 1258 CE; it moved the capital to Baghdad and presided over the Islamic Golden Age, a period of great scientific and cultural achievement.

Middle Ages

A period in European history from the fall of the Roman Empire to the beginning of the Renaissance, characterized by feudalism, the growth of monarchies, and a strong influence of the Catholic Church.

feudalism

A social and economic system that structured society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labor, prevalent in medieval Europe; created a hierarchy of vassals, lords, and serfs

nobles

Members of the elite class in feudal society who held lands granted by a king or higher lord in exchange for military service and loyalty. They played a significant role in governance and local administration.

vassals

Individuals in feudal society who received land from a lord in exchange for loyalty and military service. Vassals were integral to the feudal system's hierarchy and obligations.

serfs (peasants)

Farmers who were bound to the land under the feudal system and were required to provide labor and produce in exchange for protection and a place to live. They had limited rights and were often subject to their lord's control.

fiefs

Land granted to vassals by lords in exchange for service and loyalty. Fiefs were the basis of the feudal system's economic structure, providing lords with resources and vassals with land to manage.

manors

the self sufficient agricultural estate at the center of medieval European rural life

three field system

agricultural innovation dividing land into three plots: one for winter corps, one for spring crops, and one left unplanted. This boosted economic stability and increased food production

code of chivalry

a moral code for knights in medieval Europe that encouraged bravery, honor, loyalty, and put women on pedestals

primogeniture

system where the eldest child inherits the family’s property, title, and power, used in feudal Europe

burghers

the growing middle class within medieval Europe that gained wealth and influence and challenged feudal structure

Hanseatic League

alliance of merchant guilds and market towns in Northwestern/Central Europe that dominated Baltic and North Sea trade

scholasticism

a medieval European method of learning using reasoning to reconcile philosophy and theology to harmonize faith and religion

Bubonic Plague

14th century pandemic cause by fleas on rodents that killed 100-200 million people across Asia, Europe and North Africa. It decimated populations and accelerated the decline of feudalism

interregnum

a chaotic period of discontinuity between two reigns

Song Dynasty

960-1279 CE, imperial dynasty of China known for economic, technological, and cultural advancements. Used Neo-Confucianism, civil service exams, expanded by the Grand Canal, and was helped by Champa rice.

Yuan Dynasty

1270-1368 CE, Mongol led rule over China by Kublai Khan that facilitated East-West trade, introduced paper money, and let Buddhism flourish.

ming dynasty

1368-1644, imperial dynasty of China after Mongolian leadership that restored Chinese rule and made a centralized Confucian state. It revived civil service exams, maritime exploration with Zheng He, silk/silver/porcelain trade, building of Forbidden City.

foot binding

practice in Imperial China where elite women would bind their feet to limit mobility to show status

shogun

the military dictator and ruler of Japan that held the actual political power

Code of Bushido

the moral code of the samurai class in feudal Japan that emphasized loyalty, honors, and absolute allegiance to one’s lord

Delhi Sultanate

the Muslim dynasties in Delhi that established Islamic rule in northern India from 1206 to 1526

Rajput Kingdoms

decentralized network of Hindu states in northern India from 7th to 12 centuries CE after the fall of the Gupta Empire

Khmer Empire

9th to 15th centuries; Southeast Asian civilization that had cities like Angkor, which had complex irrigation architecture and had strong Hindu and Buddhist influence

angkor wat

a 12th century temple in Cambodia build by King Suryavarman of the Khmer originally dedicated to the god Vishnu, but later became a Buddhist site.

oral literature

myths, legends, epics, and folktales passed down through art, speech, or singing

Indian Ocean Trade

pre-modern maritime network linking East Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia through medieval times. It focuses of bbulk items and luxury goods and used monsoon winds for travel, the lateen sail, and tools like the astrolabe and magnetic compass.

Silk Road

a 4,000 mile network of Eurasian land and sea routes that linked China to the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. It exchanged goods like silk, spices, metals, as well as culture, religion, and technology.

Baghdad

the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate in 762 CE that was the hub of the Islamic Golden Age; destroyed during Mongol invasion in 1258

Mongols

a 13th-14th century nomadic groups from the Central Asian steppes that created a the largest land empire in history. They were united by Genghis Khan ajd facilitated immense cultural exchange and trade

Ottoman Turks

the ethnic group from Anatolia that founded the Ottoman Empire. They became Sunni Muslim and became a massive empire after capturing Constantinople from the weakened Byzantine Empire

Pope Innocent III

12th century pope who launched major crusades and claimed authority over European monarchs

the Inquisition

judicial institutions that aimed to punish heresy and deviant beliefs throughout Europe and its colonies

the Spanish Inquisition

tribunal created by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to convert others, punish heretics, and enforce religious conformity to enforce their own power

Hundred Years War

a series of conflicts between England and France over control of the French crown, ended in French win in 1453

Tatars

various Turkic speaking people associated with Mongol exapansion

Ivan the Terrible

Russia’s first tsar who centralizes power, expanded the Russian empire, and used terror, which lead the to the Time of Troubles after his death

Genghis Khan

founder of the Mongol Empire who unified nomadic tribes in 1206. His military genius and organization strategies gave him the largest land empire ever

Mongol Empire

the largest land empire that stretched from Eastern Europe to the Sea of Japan

Kublai Khan

Genghis’ grandson who founded the Yuan Dynasty, failed to conquer Japan, and maximized the impact of the Mongol Empire

Tamerlane

a Mongol conqueror who claimed lineage to Genghis Khan and used gunpowder weapons to build the Timurid Empire in Central Asia

Mansa Musa

the 14th century ruler of the Mali Empire in West Africa who is one history’s wealthiest individuals. He was a devout Muslim whose Hajj boosted trans-Saharan trade, and he transformed Timbuktu into a Islamic learning and culture center.

Benin

a West African Kingdom in Nigeria known for centralized rule and role in trans Atlantic trade with Europeans

Great Zimbabwe

a medieval city state in modern day Zimbabwe that controlled regional trade in gold and linked Africa’s interior to Indian Ocean trade

Tenochtitlan

the capital of the Aztec Empire whose advanced engineering and imperial power hosted a huge population before Spanish conquest.

Cahokia

the largest pre-Columbian Mississippian city that had a complex hierarchical society before European contact

Incas

rulers of pre-Columbian Americas centered in Peru that had vast road systems, centralized bureaucracy, terrace farming, mita system, and impressive stone architecture

Aztecs

Mesoamerican civilization known for tribute system, complex religion, warrior culture, and it being conquered by Hernan Cortes

Xuanzang

renowned Chinese Buddhist monk of the Tang dynasty who defined imperial travel bans to make a pilgrimage to India, in which he enhanced understanding of Buddhism in China

Marco Polo

13th century Venetian merchant and traveler whose journey through Asia introduced Europe to the luxury of the East

Ibn Battuta

Moroccan Muslim scholar and travaler known for journeys through the Islamic world

humanism

an intellectual and cultural movement if 14th century Italy shifting focus to human potential, Greek/Roman literature, and secular reasoning

printing press

the device invented by Johannes Gutenberg in Germany that allowed for the mass production of texts

indulgences

the Roman Catholic term for remission of punishment of sin in exchange for money

atheists

individuals who lack the belief of a god

Enlightenment

a 18th century movement that prioritized science, reason, and individualism over tradition and superstition

divine right

a doctrine asserting that monarch’s authority was given from god, and it justified absolute monarchy

Divine Right

an ancient Chinese doctrine originating from the Zhou Dynasty that said a ruler’s divine right was given to them, but will be taken away if they rule poorly causing overthrow

enlightened monarchs

18th century rulers who applied Enlightenment ideas to government while still having total power

neoclassical period

an 18th and 19th century movement that revived Greek and Roman Art

Treaty of Tordesillas

an agreement from 1494 between Spain and Portugal that split Latin America into two

peninsulares

individuals born in Spain but lived in the Spanish colonies of the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries

viceroy

a colonial official appointed by a monarch to govern a territory in their name

encomienda system

a 16th century Spanish colonial institution that had forced labor of indigenous populations in exchange for hypothetical protection under their conquistador

hacienda system

large, privately owned landed estates in Spanish colonial America (16th–20th centuries) that functioned as self-sufficient economic, social, and political centers

Middle Passage

the brutal, forced maritime journey of millions of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. As the 2nd leg of the Triangular Trade, it involved horrific conditions, with captives chained below decks, leading to high mortality rates

Age of Exploration

a transformative period where European nations explored, mapped, and colonized vast areas of the globe, connecting previously isolated continents

joint stock company

an early business entity where multiple investors pooled capital by purchasing shares to fund high-risk, long-distance trade and colonization. Originating in the 16th-17th centuries, these chartered companies, such as the Virginia Company and East India Company, allowed individuals to share risks and profits while acting as a legal entity separate from its owners

Dutch East India Company

the world’s first formally listed public joint-stock company and a dominant maritime trading entity during the 17th-century Dutch Golden Age. It held a 21-year monopoly over Asian trade, wielding quasi-governmental powers—including the ability to wage war, coin money, and establish colonies—to secure a monopoly over the spice trade

Muscovy Company

established in 1555 as England’s first major joint-stock company, was a chartered monopoly designed to manage trade between England and Muscovite Russia. Founded by Sebastian Cabot and merchants seeking a Northeast Passage to Asia, it became a crucial economic link, exporting woolen cloth and importing, hemp, tallow, and fur

British East India Company

a powerful English joint-stock company chartered by Queen Elizabeth I for trade in the Indian Ocean. It evolved from a spice-trading venture into a dominant imperial power, controlling vast territories in India, maintaining its own 260,000-man army, and enabling British economic domination

mercantilism

the dominant economic theory and practice in Europe from the 16th to 18th centuries, asserting that a nation’s power depended on accumulating wealth—specifically gold and silver

Spanish Inquisition

a powerful judicial institution established by Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II and Isabella I to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms, targeting conversos (Jewish converts), Moriscos (Muslim converts), and later Protestants. It functioned as an instrument of state power, known for secret trials, torture, and autos-de-fe (public acts of faith) that executed roughly 3,000–5,000 people over 350 years

Act of Supremacy

a landmark piece of legislation passed by the English Parliament, formally establishing King Henry VIII as the "Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England." It severed England's ecclesiastical ties with the Roman Catholic Church, rejected papal authority, and solidified royal control over religious, legal, and financial matters

Elizabethan Age

a "golden age" in English history marking the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. It is defined by the peak of the English Renaissance, flourishing literature and theater (notably Shakespeare), Protestant stability, maritime expansion, and the rise of England as a major European power.

Petition of Right

a landmark English constitutional document that restricted the power of King Charles I by prohibiting taxation without Parliamentary consent, arbitrary imprisonment, the quartering of soldiers, and martial law in peacetime. It asserted fundamental liberties and reaffirmed the rule of law against absolute monarchy.

Long Parliament

a pivotal English Parliament (1640–1660) summoned by King Charles I to fund the Bishops' Wars, which initiated the English Civil War. It resisted royal absolutism, secured the right to not be dissolved without member consent, and oversaw the downfall of the monarchy before being dissolved in 1660

English Commonwealth

the republican government of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1649–1660 under Oliver Cromwell following the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I. It represents a pivotal shift from monarchy to a military-backed state

Habeas Corpus Act

a foundational legal writ originating in English common law (dating to the 14th century) that forces authorities to produce a prisoner in court and justify their detention. It serves as a check against arbitrary state power, requiring proof of lawful imprisonment to prevent indefinite, secret detentions.

English Bill of Rights

a landmark constitutional document that established parliamentary sovereignty and restricted the powers of the monarchy in England, shifting the nation toward a constitutional monarchy. Enacted after the Glorious Revolution, it enshrined fundamental liberties such as free elections, freedom of speech in Parliament, and prohibitions against excessive bail and cruel punishment, directly influencing the U.S. Constitution.

Huguenots

French Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who followed the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition, facing severe persecution from the Catholic French Crown. Emerging during the Reformation, they comprised nobility and middle-class artisans, leading to violent conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion

Edict of Nantes

a 1598 decree by King Henry IV of France granting Huguenots (French Protestants) substantial rights, including freedom of conscience, legal equality, and limited public worship, in a predominantly Catholic nation. It ended the violent French Wars of Religion and was revoked by Louis XIV in 1685.

National Seclusion Policy

a strict isolationist policy enforced by Japan’s Tokugawa shogunate from roughly 1633 to 1853. It prohibited trade, travel, and foreign influence to maintain political stability and limit Christianity, restricting foreign contact to specific ports (Nagasaki) with the Dutch and Chinese

haiku

a traditional Japanese poetic form, originating in the 17th century from the opening verse (hokku) of renga (linked verse).

Tokugawa(Edo) Period

a 250-year era of peace, stability, and strict isolationist policy (sakoku) under the Tokugawa shogunate. Founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara, it featured rapid urbanization in Edo (Tokyo), agricultural growth, a strict four-class social hierarchy, and a flourishing, unique culture before the 1868 Meiji Restoration.

Michaelangelo

Italian High Renaissance sculptor, painter, architect, and poet, widely considered one of the greatest artists in history. He is best known for masterpieces like the David statue, the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and the Pietà, showcasing unrivaled anatomical precision, physical realism, and emotional intensity

Leonardo da Vinci

a Florentine polymath of the High Renaissance, recognized as a premier painter, scientist, inventor, and engineer. He epitomized the "Renaissance Man" through his anatomical studies, mechanical drawings, and iconic art, including the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper, merging empirical observation with artistic genius.

Donatello

revolutionary Italian Early Renaissance sculptor based in Florence, renowned for reviving classical techniques in bronze and marble, such as contrapposto, to create highly expressive, realistic human figures. He is famous for creating the first freestanding nude statue since antiquity, the bronze David

Johannes Gutenberg

German goldsmith and inventor who revolutionized world history by introducing the mechanical movable-type printing press to Europe around 1450. His innovations enabled the mass production of books, fostering an "information revolution" that accelerated the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the spread of literacy.

Machiavelli

a Florentine diplomat, philosopher, and author during the Italian Renaissance, widely regarded as the founder of modern political science. His famous treatise, The Prince (1532), analyzed power pragmatically, arguing that leaders must act immorally or deceptively to maintain state stability—coining the concept that "the end justifies the means"

Erasmus

a Dutch priest, theologian, and the premier scholar of the Northern Renaissance, renowned for promoting "Christian Humanism". He criticized clerical abuses while advocating for education, classical learning, and a "philosophy of Christ" based on the New Testament, heavily influencing the Reformation era.

Sir Thomas More

a renowned English Renaissance humanist, lawyer, author, and statesman who served as Lord Chancellor to Henry VIII. Famous for writing Utopia (1516), he was executed for refusing to acknowledge King Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church of England, remaining a Catholic martyr

William Shakespeare

an English playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest dramatist in history and a pivotal figure of the English Renaissance.

Martin Luther

a German theologian and monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the Roman Catholic Church's practices, notably through his 1517 95 Theses. He criticized the sale of indulgences and emphasized sola fide (salvation by faith alone) and sola scriptura (the Bible as the only authority). His actions broke Western Christendom's unity, creating Protestantism and causing lasting social, political, and religious shifts.

Pope Leo X

the Medici pope whose lavish patronage of the arts and extreme spending depleted the Vatican treasury, driving the aggressive sale of indulgences to fund St. Peter's Basilica. His refusal to take Martin Luther's challenges seriously, followed by his 1521 excommunication of Luther, directly triggered the Protestant Reformation

John Calvin

a French theologian and key Protestant reformer in Geneva, Switzerland, who founded Calvinism. He is central to AP World History for his doctrine of predestination (God has already determined salvation/damnation) and the "sovereignty of God," which heavily influenced European, Scottish, and American religious, social, and political thought.

King Henry VIII

the King of England who initiated the English Reformation, breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church to establish the Church of England (Anglican Church). Driven by the need for a male heir and the Pope's refusal to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry utilized the Act of Supremacy (1534) to become the Supreme Head of the Church of England, seizing monastic lands and wealth.

Protestant Reformation

a major religious, political, and cultural upheaval in Western Europe that challenged the Roman Catholic Church's authority, beginning with Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517. It aimed to reform church corruption (e.g., indulgences) and shifted focus to scriptural authority and personal faith, leading to the creation of Protestant denominations.