Public Opinion, and Voting, American Political Ideologies, Beliefs, Political Participation

Political Culture

Commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate.

Political Socialization

The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.

Public Opinion

What the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time

Political Ideology

A cohesive set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and the role of government.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one's political participation makes a difference

Split-Ticket Voting

Voting for candidates of different parties for different offices at the same election

Political Party

A group that seeks to elect candidates to public office

Plurality Election

Candidate with the most votes wins. AKA "Winner Take All" elections.

Single-Member District

An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official.

Party Era

An historical period dominated by one political party.

Critical Elections

An election where new coalitions of voters have formed, beginning a new party era

Party Realignment

The majority party is displaced by the minority party, thus ushering in a new party era.

Divided Government

One party controls the White House and another party controls one or both houses of Congress

Interest Groups

An organized group that tries to influence the government to adopt certain policies or measures.

Free Riders

People who benefit from the group but give little in return

Power Elite Theory

small networks of individuals hold concentrated power in modern societies

Pluralist Theory

The theory that many interest groups compete for power in a large number of policy areas.

Hyperpluralist Theory

A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened

Mass Media

Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other means of popular communication.

Linkage Institution

Institutions that connect citizens to government

Horse Race Journalism

News coverage that focuses on who is ahead rather than on the issues

Individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

equality of opportunity

a widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom to use whatever talents and wealth they have to reach their fullest potential

free enterprise

an economic system in which private business operates in competition and largely free of state control.

Rule of Law

the restriction of the arbitrary exercise of power by subordinating it to well-defined and established laws.

Keynesian economic theory

The theory that a government policy of increasing spending and cutting taxes could stimulate the economy in a recession.

supply-side economics

An economic theory holding that the key task for fiscal policy is to stimulate the supply of goods, as by cutting tax rates.

monetary policy

Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling the money supply and thus interest rates.

fiscal policy

A government policy for dealing with the budget (especially with taxation and borrowing)

Liberal Ideology

A political orientation that favors a more assertive role in the redistribution of economic resources, but emphasizes individual freedom on a range of social issues.

Conservative Ideology

An ideology that advocates minimal regulation of the economy and decreased emphasis on income redistribution.

suffrage (franchise)

the right to vote. [In 1870, the 15th Amendment held that suffrage shall not be denied "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." In 1920, the 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote.]

rational choice voting

Voting based on what is perceived to be in the citizen's individual interest

retrospective voting

voting for a candidate because you like his or her past actions in office

prospective voting

Voting based on what a candidate pledges to do in the future about an issue if elected.

party-line voting

Supporting a party by voting for candidates from one political party for all public offices at the same level of government.

Demographics

the characteristics of a population with respect to age, race, and gender.

general election

An election held to choose which candidate will hold office

mid-term election

non-Presidential elections (ex. Senate and House) that occur midway through a presidential term

Realignment

A process in which a substantial group of voters switches party allegiance, producing a long-term change in the political landscape.

proportional system

An electoral system used throughout most of Europe that awards legislative seats to political parties in proportion to the number of votes won in an election.

winner-take-all system

an election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins

party coalitions

An alliance of political groups formed to oppose a common foe or pursue a common goal.

bipartisan

supported by two political parties

Open Primary Election

a party-nominating election in which any qualified voter can take part

closed primary

A primary in which only registered members of a particular political party can vote

party caucus

A meeting of the members of a party in a legislative chamber to select party leaders and to develop party policy. Called a conference by the Republicans.

incumbent advantage in congressional campaigns

no term limits, can spend more money, name recognition

Political Action Committee (PAC)

A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations. A popular term for a political committee organized for the purpose of raising and spending money to elect and defeat candidates.

Super Political Action Committee (PAC)

legally permitted to raise and spend more money than a traditional PAC. Technically known as independent expenditure-only committees, super PACs may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, associations and individuals, then spend unlimited sums to overtly advocate for or against political candidates.

independent expenditures

Spending by political action committees, corporations, or labor unions that is done to help a party or candidate but is done independently of them.

Tracking Poll

A tracking poll is a type of public opinion survey that is repeated at regular intervals (daily, weekly, etc.) to measure changes in public opinion over time, especially during political campaigns.

Exit Poll

An exit poll is a survey conducted immediately after people have voted. It’s used to predict the outcome of an election and understand voter demographics and motivations

Political Socialization

Political socialization is the process by which individuals develop their political beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors. Influences include family, education, media, religion, peers, and life experiences.

Party Polarization

_________refers to the growing divide between political parties, where members of each party become more ideologically consistent and distant from the other side, often leading to gridlock and partisan conflict.

Civic Duty

Civic duty is the belief that citizens have a responsibility to actively participate in the political process and community life — like voting, obeying laws, or serving on a jury.

Economic Equality

Economic equality is the idea that everyone should have the same access to wealth, income, and economic opportunity. It often includes concerns about income gaps and fair distribution of resources.

Limited Government

is a principle that government power should be restricted by laws or a constitution, ensuring that individual rights and liberties are protected from government overreach.

List the agents of political socialization. Which of the agents is most

influential?

1. Family – Often the most influential, especially in early life. Parents’ political views can strongly shape those of their children.

2. Education/Schools – Teach civic values, patriotism, and basic political knowledge.

3. Peers/Friends – Influence especially during adolescence and adulthood.

4. Media – Shapes perceptions through news, social media, entertainment, etc.

5. Religion – Religious teachings and communities can influence moral and political views.

6. Race/Ethnicity – Cultural background often intersects with political identity.

7. Social Class – Economic status can affect opinions on policy and government.

8. Geography/Region – Where someone lives (urban vs. rural, different states) can shape political leanings.

9. Life Events – Major events like war, economic crises, or social movements can change or reinforce beliefs.

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Most Influential Agent:

Family is typically considered the most influential, especially during early development, because it’s where individuals first learn about the world and begin to form their political identity.

What is the difference between the following ideological positions?

(Liberal, Conservative, Moderate, Libertarian)

• Liberal: Supports government action for social justice, economic regulation, and expanded civil rights. Favors progressive change.

• Conservative: Prefers limited government, traditional values, a strong national defense, and free-market economics.

• Moderate: Holds a mix of liberal and conservative views; often seen as centrist and open to compromise.

• Libertarian: Advocates for minimal government in both economic and personal matters; supports individual freedom and limited regulation.

When is a president most likely to implement a Keynesian approach to stabilize the economy?

A president is most likely to implement a Keynesian approach to stabilize the economy during a recession or economic downturn.

Why?

Keynesian economics argues that during a recession, the government should:

• Increase spending

• Cut taxes
  To boost demand, create jobs, and stimulate economic growth.

So, when unemployment is high and consumer spending is low, a president might turn to Keynesian policies to “jumpstart” the economy.

What is the difference between a proportional electoral system and a

winner-take-all system?

Proportional Electoral System:

• Seats are awarded based on the percentage of votes each party receives.

• Encourages multiple parties and more diverse representation.

• Common in parliamentary systems (like many in Europe).

Winner-Take-All System:

• Also called "first-past-the-post."

• The candidate with the most votes wins all the power, even without a majority.

• Common in the U.S., especially in presidential and congressional elections.

• Tends to favor two major parties.

What is the difference between a primary and a caucus?

Primary:

• A statewide election where voters cast secret ballots for their preferred candidate.

• Can be open, closed, or semi-closed, depending on who is allowed to vote.

• Quick and private, like a regular election.

Caucus:

• A local, in-person meeting where voters discuss and then vote for candidates, often by raising hands or grouping together.

• Takes more time and public participation.

• More common in smaller states like Iowa.

Why have the total cost of both presidential and congressional

elections increased?

The total cost of presidential and congressional elections has increased due to several key factors:

• Citizens United v. FEC (2010): This Supreme Court ruling allowed unlimited spending by corporations and outside groups, leading to a surge in Super PAC and dark money contributions.

• More Advertising: Campaigns spend heavily on TV, digital, and social media ads.

• Longer Campaign Seasons: Candidates start running earlier, increasing overall costs.

• Increased Fundraising: More time and money are spent just to raise campaign funds.

Describe the ruling in Citizens United v FEC and the impact on

elections.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010) was a Supreme Court case where the Court ruled that corporations and unions could spend unlimited money on independent political ads, citing free speech protections under the First Amendment.

Impact:
This decision led to a dramatic increase in political spending, especially by Super PACs (Political Action Committees), which can raise and spend unlimited funds. As a result, outside groups now have more influence in elections, making them more expensive and often more focused on attack ads.

How can interest groups influence U.S. politics?

1. Lobbying: They hire lobbyists to directly influence lawmakers and government officials to shape policies in their favor.

2. Campaign Contributions: Through Political Action Committees (PACs), interest groups contribute money to candidates who support their causes, helping to ensure access and influence during elections.

3. Public Advocacy: They organize public campaigns, protests, and petitions to raise awareness and build public support for their issues.

4. Litigation: Interest groups may file lawsuits to challenge laws or regulations they oppose, or to push for changes in the law.

5. Grassroots Mobilization: They encourage their members or the public to contact lawmakers, participate in demonstrations, or vote in support of certain policies.

These tactics allow _____ to advocate for policies that benefit their members or causes and to influence both public opinion and government decision-making.

Describe the shift regarding the media’s role in providing information.

• From Gatekeeper to Content Provider:
  Media once filtered news, but today, anyone can create and share content, leading to fragmented news.

• Increased Fragmentation:
  Cable news and social media have created a more polarized media landscape, with audiences often choosing ideologically aligned sources.

• Faster News Cycle:
  Real-time reporting through social media and 24-hour news outlets has sped up news delivery but often prioritizes sensationalism over in-depth analysis.

• Decline of Traditional Journalism:
  Traditional journalism has declined in favor of blogs and social media, raising concerns about accuracy and credibility.

• Shift Toward Opinion-Based Content:
  There's been a rise in opinion and analysis, blurring lines between factual reporting and partisan commentary.

• Abolition of the Fairness Doctrine (1987):
  The Fairness Doctrine, which required equal time for opposing views, was repealed in 1987. This led to the rise of partisan media, increasing political polarization.

What is the difference between prospective voting, retrospective

voting, rational choice voting, and party-line voting?

1. Prospective Voting:

Voters choose based on future policies and how they expect them to affect them.

2. Retrospective Voting:

Voters base their decision on the past performance of candidates or parties.

3. Rational Choice Voting:

Voters select the candidate that will bring them the most personal benefit, based on their interests.

4. Party-Line Voting:

Voters choose candidates from the same political party due to party loyalty, regardless of individual candidates.

What was the major priority of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)?

The major priority of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA), also known as the McCain-Feingold Act (2002), was to reduce the influence of "soft money" in political campaigns.

Key focus:

• Limit "soft money": The BCRA aimed to restrict unregulated contributions (soft money) to political parties, which were often used for issue advocacy ads and other campaign activities.

• Regulate "issue ads": It sought to curb the use of issue ads that could indirectly influence elections by limiting their airing before elections.

Soft Money

a contribution to a political party that is not accounted as going to a particular candidate, thus avoiding various legal limitations.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)

The ______________, passed in 2002, aimed to reduce the influence of money in politics by:

1. Banning "soft money" donations to political parties.

2. Regulating "issue ads" close to elections.

3. Increasing contribution limits and requiring more disclosure for political ads.

how did citizens united v fec affect bcra

Citizens United v. FEC (2010) significantly impacted the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) by weakening key provisions.

Key impact:

• Struck down part of BCRA: The Supreme Court ruled that BCRA's restriction on independent spending by corporations and unions was unconstitutional. This meant that corporations and unions could spend unlimited amounts on independent political ads (not directly coordinated with candidates).

Result:

• Super PACs: The ruling paved the way for the creation of Super PACs (Political Action Committees), which can raise and spend unlimited money on campaigns as long as they don’t directly coordinate with candidates or parties.