BehSci GR 2

How do we define learning? (20-1)

The process of associating new & relatively enduring information/ behaviors.

What are the basic forms of learning? (20-1)

• Association

• Conditioning

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

• Cognitive Learning

Association (20-1)

When our mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence.

Classical Conditioning (20-1)

Learning to associate 2 stimuli, thus anticipating events.

What is memory, and how is it measured? (23-1)

Memory

• The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Measuring Retention

• Recall

• Recognition

• Relearning 

How do memory models help us study memory? (23-2)

They help us relate memory to things we understand better to make it easier for us to understand as a whole— like today’s information-processing model:

• encode—get information into our brain.

• store—retain that information.

• retrieve—later get the information back out.

How has later research updated the three-stage information-processing model? (23-2)

It is now considered:

• Sensory memory

• Short term / working memory

• Long term memory

Parallel processing (23-2)

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

Sensory memory (23-2)

How we first record to-be-remembered info as sensory information.

short-term memory (23-2)

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

long-term memory (23-2)

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory (23-2)

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

Explicit (declarative) memories (23-3)

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”— uses effortful processing

effortful processing (23-3)

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort, makes explicit memories.

automatic processing (23-3)

happens without our awareness, makes implicit memories

implicit (nondeclarative) memories (23-3)

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations without conscious recollection.

What information do we process automatically? (23-4)

procedural memory and associations, like info about:

• Space

• Time

• Frequency

How does sensory memory work? (23-5)

Sensory memory feeds our working memory, recording momentary images, sounds, and strong scents. Only fleeting memories/ sensations. 

iconic memory (23-5)

a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory (23-5)

a fleeting sensory memory of audio stimuli

What is our short-term memory capacity? (23-6)

we tend to remember about six letters and only about five words. short term memories last only ~3 seconds.

Effortful Processing Strategies (23-7)

• Chunking

• Mnemonics

• Hierarchies

Chunking (23-7)

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Mnemonics (23-7)

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Hierarchies (23-7)

organizing what you study into headers, highlighting important info, etc. 

distributed practice (23-8)

spacing effect:

• the tendency for distributed study or practice to have better long-term retention than cramming

testing effect (23-8)

better memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Shallow processing (23-8)

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing (23-8)

encoding through re-wording the information you’re trying to learn tends to yield the best retention

Why do we forget? (25-1)

We forget non-important memories to make room for more important memories or because of memory failures. 

anterograde amnesia (25-1)

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia (25-1)

an inability to remember information from one’s past

Encoding failure (25-1)

The failure of the mind to correctly encode memories into long-term memory. More common in older individuals. 

Storage Decay (25-1)

The decay of memories stored in long-term memory.

Retrieval Failure (25-1)

When we can’t retrieve a memory from long-term memory. Causes the ‘tip-of-the-tongue’ phenomenon.

Proactive Interference (25-1)

older learning disrupting the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference (25-1)

newer learning disrupting the recall of old information

Motivated Forgetting (25-1)

forgetting that has a self-serving purpose— from hiding an unintentional lie to shielding someone from trauma.

reconsolidation (25-2)

when previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect (25-2)

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

source amnesia (25-2)

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.)

Why have reports of repressed and recovered memories been so hotly debated? (25-2)

Memory construction errors and/ or memory construction can lead to false memories that lead to accusation of innocent people

How reliable are young children’s eyewitness descriptions? (25-4)

When questioned about their experiences in neutral words they understand, children often accurately recall what happened and who did it.

cognition (26-1)

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

metacognition (26-1)

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

concepts (26-1)

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype (26-1)

a mental image or best example of a category

algorithms (26-2)

step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution

heuristics (26-2)

a simple thinking strategy—a mental shortcut—that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. More error prone than an algorithm.

insight (26-2)

an abrupt, true-seeming, and often satisfying solution

Confirmation bias (26-2)

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

fixation (26-2)

an inability to come to a fresh perspective

intuition (26-3)

our fast, automatic, unreasoned feelings and thoughts

representativeness heuristic (26-3)

To judge the likelihood of something by intuitively comparing it to particular prototypes

availability heuristic (26-3)

When we evaluate the commonality of an event based on its mental availability

What factors exaggerate our fear of unlikely events? (26-4)

Dramatic incidents, vivid imagery, shocking headlines

overconfidence (26-5)

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance (26-5)

the persistence of your initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Framing (26-5)

the way we present an issue— can be a powerful tool of persuasion for good or ill

How do smart thinkers use intuition? (26-6)

• Intuition is recognition born of experience.

• Intuition is usually adaptive.

• Intuition is huge.