Unit 5: Chapter 12 - Agriculture: Human Environment Interaction

Agriculture

the purposeful cultivation of plants or raising of animals to produce goods for survival

Why do geographers study agriculture?

Geographers study agriculture to understand how humans have modified the environment to sustain themselves.

Elevation

impacts the length of the growing season and what plants can be grown. The higher the elevation, the shorter the growing season.

Ex:
Tropical regions in South America have lush grounds to grow bananas and sugarcane. But, in the same region but high in the Andes Mountains, farmers grow potatoes and barley or use the land for grazing cattle.

How does the temperature change as the elevation increases?

For every 1,000 foot increase above sea level, there is a loss of 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit

Soil

the biologically active coating of the Earth's surface.

Soil is a complex mix of minerals, water, air and organic matter like decaying plant material.

What are the key characteristics of soil?

its fertility, texture, and structure

Topography

an areas land features.

This includes the slope of the land, which can affect the ability of soil and water to stay in place. The steeper the slope, the more likely the soil and water will run off.

What is terrace farming?

Terracing or cutting into the slope flattens the land and helps retain the soil and water.

Where do farmers use terrace farming?

In areas that have high, sloping hills and in mountainous regions where there is not enough flat land to farm on.

Climate

the long-term pattern of weather in a given area.

What four key factors affect climate?

-Distance from the Equator
-Wind and ocean currents
-Proximity to large bodies of water
-Topography

Climate regions

areas that have similar climate patterns generally based on their latitude and their location on coasts or in continental interiors.

Tropical climates

warm temperatures year-round but vary in their amount of precipitation.

0-30 degrees Latitude North and South

Dry climates

commonly found in continental interiors and are either arid or semiarid.

Temperate climates

moderate temperatures and adequate precipitation amounts.

30-60 degrees Latitude North and South

Polar climates (Tundra and Ice cap)

found near the North and South Poles and are both extremely cold.

60-90 degrees Latitude North and South

Subsistence farming

farmers grow and raise a diverse range of crops and livestock for their family's consumption.

No buying or selling.

For SURVIVAL!

Where is subsistence farming commonly found?

Subsistence agriculture is small-scale and local, practiced primarily in peripheral countries.

Commercial Agriculture

farmers grow crops and raise livestock for profit to sell to customers.

For PROFIT!

Where is commercial agriculture commonly found?

Commercial Agriculture is Large-scale, expensive, and technology-intensive, primarily practiced in the developed world.

Intensive Subsistence

Agriculture involving the regular application of intense physical labor in order to keep a unit of land in production.

Due to high agricultural density, the average farm is small, but these small farms fill almost all available space

Ex:
intensive farming of corn, soybeans, wheat, and paddy rice farming.

Intensive commercial agriculture

heavy investments in labor and capital and results in high yields for profit

Ex:
market gardening, plantation agriculture, mixed crop and livestock systems

What does intensive commercial agriculture use?

often incorporates chemical fertilizers and machines, instead of relying mainly upon human and animal labor

Monoculture

the agricultural system of planting one crop or raising one type of animal at a given time

Monocropping

the cultivation of one or two crops year after year

allows for specialization, simplifies cultivation, and maximizes efficiency.

Rotation

the varying of crops from year to year to allow for the restoration of nutrients in the soil.

What do farmers practicing monocropping need to invest in?

must invest heavily in high-yield seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides to maintain the soil and maximize plant growth.

All can harm the environment.

Plantation agriculture

large-scale commercial farming of one crop grown for markets often distant from the plantation

Plantations tend to be labor-intensive operations, although since many are in peripheral countries, the cost of that labor is relatively low.

Where does plantation agriculture typically take place?

in peripheral and semi-peripheral economies in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Plantations are owned by wealthy Europeans or Americans.

Market gardening

produces fruits, vegetables, and flowers and typically serves a specific market or an urban area.

Market gardeners cultivate high yields on small tracts of land using intensive production methods.

Ex:
Cotton, sugar, coffee, rubber, exotic fruits

Mediterranean Agriculture

The growing of specialized crops in climate/geographic regions resembling the Mediterranean region

Based on Horticulture

Horticulture

the growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. OLIVES are an important crop, as are GRAPES used in wine production.

Where is Mediterranean agriculture located?

Located ALONG SEAS on the WEST COASTS of continents

Mixed crop and livestock systems

both crops and livestock are raised for profit

Most crops are fed to ANIMALS rather than being consumed by humans. Though most land is used for crops, most profits are derived from animals.

What is the most important crop on these farms?

CORN is the most important crop on these farms, as it produces high yields of nutritious animal feed.

On-farm mixed farming

the crops and livestock are raised on the same farm

Between-farm mixing

two farmers share resources, with one growing crops and the other raising livestock.

Ranching

The commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area.

Historically, ranchers would move cattle from ranges to cities where they would fetch far higher prices- as much as 10x more.

Where is ranching best suited?

Well-suited for semiarid/arid land in areas where vegetation is too sparse and soil too poor to support crops

Extensive agriculture

typically uses fewer inputs and less labor, and results in lower outputs than intensive practices.

Ex:
shifting cultivation, nomadic herding, and ranching.

Where is extensive agriculture found?

-periphery & semiperiphery countries
-ranching enterprises in core countries

Where is extensive agriculture practiced?

-subsistence agricultural regions
-commercial agricultural regions

Shifting cultivation

the practice of growing crops or grazing animals on a piece of land for a year or two, then abandoning that land when the nutrients have been depleted from the soil and moving to a new piece of land where the process is repeated

Lands used for shifting cultivation are often communally owned.

Slash and burn

land is cleared by cutting down trees and brush, and after the vegetation dries, burning this "slash"

It can lead to deforestation and soil erosion.

Nomadic herding/Pastoral nomadism

the practice of moving animals seasonally or as needed to allow the best grazing

Adopted in dry/arid climates where crop growing is extremely difficult.

How can pastoral nomadism cause damage to the environment?

-Overgrazing can lead to land degradation
-Desertification
-Herds may favor certain plants over others which can impact biodiversity
-Soil erosion on mountain slopes

Desertification

land degradation that occurs when soil deteriorates to a desert like condition

Biodiversity

the variety of organisms living in a location

What do nomads survive off of?

Nomads survive largely off GRAIN; herds are used for secondary products like cheese, and to be sold for income.

Transhumance

the movement of herds between pastures at cooler, higher elevations during the summer months and lower elevations during the winter.

Clustered settlement

residents live in close proximity.

Dispersed settlements

houses and buildings are isolated from one another, and all the homes in a settlement are distributed over a relatively large area.

Linear settlement

pattern, houses and buildings extend in a long line that usually follows a land feature, such as a riverfront, coast, or hill, or aligns along a transportation route.

Metes and bounds

describes property boundaries in terms of lines drawn in a certain direction for a specific distance from clear points of reference.

Long-lot survey system

adjacent long strips of land stretching back from frontage along rivers or lakes

Township/range system

townships of 6 miles X 6 miles, giving a total of 36 square miles.

This method developed with the advances in surveying technology.

Land could be sold in full, half, or quarter sections.

Hunting and gathering

prior to the advent of agriculture, all humans likely obtained needed food through hunting and gathering.


People usually lived in groups of 50 or less and relocated regularly along with changing seasons.

Domestication

the deliberate effort to grow plants and raise animals, making plants and animals adapt to human demands, and using selective breeding to develop desirable characteristics.

When did agriculture originate?

The origins of agriculture cannot be documented with certainty, because it began before recorded history.

Environmental factors that contributed to the beginnings of agriculture

The end of the most recent ice age greatly expanded the ecumene (land where people have made their permanent home)

Cultural factors that contributed to the beginnings of agriculture

The desire to establish sedentary communities; the discovery of agriculture (experimentation v. accident)

Agricultural hearth

an area where a group began to domesticate plants and animals.

What are common shared characteristics of agricultural hearths?

-fertile soil, available water, moderate climate, and residents with organizational skills.
-development of irrigation systems in some regions
-efficient methods of storing seeds and harvests

When and where did the first agricultural hearth originate?

The first was the Fertile Crescent (present day Syria and Iraq), a region in Southwest Asia, around 11,000 years ago

How did agricultural knowledge spread?

Through relocation diffusion and stimulus diffusion.

Over hundreds of years, many important crops diffused throughout Asia, Europe, and Africa as a result of diffusion or through trade.

Latin America early crops

Beans, cotton, potato; most importantly maize (corn)

Southwest Asia early crops

barley, wheat, lentil, and olive

Sub-Saharan Africa early crops

Sorghum, yams, millet, and rice

East Asia early crops

Rice and millet (fast-growing cereal plant)

What stock animals did Southwest Asia domesticate?

cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep around 8000 years ago

When and where were dogs first domesticated?

around 12000 years ago in Asia

they may have been used for hunting & security

Where were horses first domesticated?

in Central Asia, their modern diffusion largely follows the diffusion of the Indo-European language family.

The Columbian Exchange

The exchange of goods and ideas between the Americas, Europe, and Africa, began after Christopher Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492.

Consequences of the Columbian Exchange

-Population explosions occurred in Europe and Asia.
-Millions of Native Americans died from diseases like smallpox and malaria, decreasing their populations and making them easier to conquer
-Crops from the Americas dominated the diets of many people in the Eastern Hemisphere.
-Cattle and sheep now in the American West and South American Pampas were introduced by Europeans.
-Coffee from the East African highlands of Ethiopia became a dominant cash crop in both Central and South America.

The First Agricultural Revolution

Began about 11,000 years ago and lasted for several thousand years it shifted people from foragers to farmers.

This occurred in different hearths at different times

Consequences of the First Agricultural Revolution

-The focus of the human diet became the multiple staple crops that people produced, and the overall diet was less diverse.
-Increased efficiency meant more food, which supported a growing population.
-Not all members of society were needed to grow food.
-Population growth meant larger villages, and eventually the first cities.
-Over time, the first ancient civilizations developed.

The Second Agricultural Revolution

Launched in the early 1700s by new practices and tools. The revolution began in Britain and the Low Countries and diffused from those regions. This dramatically improved crop yields.

Societal Changes from the Second Agricultural Revolution

-In Britain, agriculture was previously done by peasants who were growing food for themselves on shared land.
-Britain gradually switched to an enclosure system - land controlled by individual owners.
-Owners with more control over their farms used more effective farming practices.

Technological and planting innovations from the Second Agricultural Revolution

-Horse-drawn seed drill
-Mechanical reaper
-Steel plow
-New methods of crop rotation to prevent soil exhaustion and increase yields

Consequences of the Second Agricultural Revolution

-Changes in food production resulted in another population boom.
-Peasant farmers were pushed off the land by enclosure systems and farm mechanization.

The Third Agricultural Revolution

Began in the early 20th century and continues today. It broke away from the millennia-old reliance on animal power and transitioned to machine power.

Innovations from the Third Agricultural Revolution

-Motorized tractors and other mechanical equipment
-Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
-Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) - to manipulate the genetic makeup of plants and animals
-Use of information technology and data analytics to maximize efficiency and yields (often called the fourth agricultural revolution)

Consequences of the Third Agricultural Revolution

-Millions of people were fed and many lives were saved by increased agricultural production.
-Increased mechanization reduced the need for human labor.
-Some technology is dominated by multinational corporations, making producers vulnerable to the companies' sales practices.
-increased demand for water
-powerful chemicals from pesticides that harm insects, animals, and humans
-large amounts of animal waste products
-large amounts of energy and other natural resources used for food production
-loss of biodiversity

The Green Revolution

During the 1950s and 1960s, scientists used their increased knowledge of genetics to develop new high-yield strains of grain crops, particularly wheat and rice.

Norman Borlaug

known as the "Father of the Green Revolution"

an American scientist who dedicated himself to the idea of spreading the knowledge of high-yield crops to peripheral and semi-peripheral regions of the world that had struggled with poor harvests and an inability to feed their growing populations.

In 1970 Norman Borlaug won the Nobel Peace Prize for his works.

The Green Revolution in Mexico

Borlaug started with Mexico and after a decade was able to convince local farmers to use the modified wheat. By the 1950s, Mexican farmers were able to produce enough wheat to meet their country's growing demand.

The Green Revolution in South Asia

Borlaug traveled to India and Pakistan to train farmers in to use the high-yield crops and train local scientists to continue making advances in the science.

The high-yield crops became a huge success in both countries.

The Green Revolution in Africa

The Green Revolution then moved to Africa where the goal was to make the Green Revolution environmentally friendly.