AP Psych Review All Units

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes, behavior, and emotion.

Nature-Nuture Issue

Longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Today’s science views traits and behavior as the combination of the interaction of nature and nurture.

Empiricism

Knowledge comes from the use of the 5 senses.

What is experienced can be used in the mind to develop ideas and knowledge.

Basic Research

Research and studies meant to increase the wealth of scientific knowledge. Often theoretical, without specific applications in mind.

Applied Research

Research and studies that focus on solving problems and innovating new technologies. Purpose is to conduct scientific research and apply to real-world situations.

Perspective/Approach

The different ways psychologists explain human behavior.

Structuralism

Early approach to studying cognition using introspection

Introspection

Thinking directly about ones own internal processes, judgements, perceptions, or states

Functionalism

Focus on how ones mind helps one adapt to ones environment

Psychoanalytic/-dynamic

Perspective of psychology that uses the unconscious and animal instincts to explain current actions that stem from unresolved conflicts from childhood trauma or psycho-sexual conflicts.

Famous thinker was Freud.

Gestalt

Approach to thinking about humans are more than simply a sum of parts, particularly in relation to ones perceptual experiences.

Evolutionary

An approach to psychology that emphasizes natural selection - that the behaviors and traits that most enable survival will be passed down to the next generation. Species will adapt for the survival of future generations.

Famous thinker was Darwin.

Cognitive

Approach to psychology that emphasizes the influence mental processes (thinking, beliefs, perceptions, memories, expectations, decision-making) have on ones behavior.

Famous thinkers are Piaget and Chomsky

Behavioral

Approach to psychology that holds the belief that people are ‘blank slates’ and only their observable behaviors can be studied. Also believes that behaviors are the result of consequences (punishment/reward), so they are learned and ones behavior can be modified by changing associations.

Famous thinkers are Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner.

Humanist

An approach to psychology that believes that human nature is ever evolving and self-directed, choice and free will are actualities. Focus on ones self-concept and efforts to reach self-actualization.

Famous thinkers are Maslow and Rogers.

Biological/Neuroscience/Behavioral Genetics

Approach to psychology that emphasizes the heavy influence that ones physical body has on their mental processes, behaviors, and emotions.

Sociocultural

Psychological approach that emphasizes the impact on behavior that the messages, norms, and expectations in ones culture/environment have. Those norms/expectations show influence through gender, ethnicity, race, economic class, religion, culture, and society.

Thinker is Bandura.

Developmental

Psychological approach that focuses on areas of change and consistency throughout the lifespan. Compares cognition, social ability, physical ability, and morals.

Trait

Psychological approach that focuses on patterns of thoughts, behaviors, and feelings. Tends to hold the view that humans have innate characteristics/dispositions.

Biological Psychology

The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

Counseling Psychology

Field that aims to help an individual overcome mental health challenges to improve their quality of life. Has medium/mild impact and is used for low severity situations.

Clinical Psychology

Addresses behavioral and mental health issues faced by individuals. Deals with disorders, diagnosed disorders, and is used in high severity situations.

Cognitive Psychology

Branch of psychology dedicated to studying how people think and how the interactions of thinking, emotion, creativity, and problem-solving abilities affect how and why an individual think the way they do.

Community Psychology

Field of psychology that focuses on the study of how individuals relate to their communities and the reciprocal effect of communities on individuals.

Comparative Psychology

Scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of non-human animals - finding similarities and differences.

Developmental Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.

Forensic Psychology

Application of scientific knowledge and methods to help answer legal questions arising in criminal, civil, contractual, or other judicial proceedings. Carry out psychological assessments of people involved in legal cases.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in the workplace.

Human Factors Psychology

Field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

Psychometric Psychology

Scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits. Looks at the theory and technique of psychological measurement.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how humans think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Experimental Methodologies

Non-Experimental Methodologies

Case Study

Non-experimental technique where one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

Non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

Non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative random sample of the group. TOOL not method.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together → how well either factor predicts the other.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Qualitative

A research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers.

Structured Interview

Data collection method that relies on asking questions in a set order to collect data on a topic.

Quantitative

Research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data.

Likert Scale

Psychometric scale used to measure a respondent’s self-assessment of their attitude towards a statement or question.

Longitudinal Study

Research that follows and retests the same participants over time.

Cross-Sectional

Research that compares participants of different ages at the same point in time.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. A statement, not a question.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Peer Review

Scientific experts evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Convenience Sampling

Biased sampling method where participants are selected to be part of the sample through their ease of accessibility to the researcher.

n

Number of participants in a study

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment/the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment/IV, serves as a comparison to evaluate the impact of the IV.

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the factor that’s manipulated and whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured and may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding Variables

In an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Experimenter Bias

Bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs.

Social Desirability Bias

Bias from participants responding in ways they presume a researcher expects/wishes.

Self-Report Bias

Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

Third Variable Problem

Type of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others.

Double Blind Study

Experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant/blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Placebo/Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations only.

Any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, that the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Random Selection

A form of sampling where a representative group of research participants are selected from the population by chance/at random.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Hawthorne Effect

Participants changing their behavior due to their awareness of being observed/in a study.

Cohort Effect

Group of subjects who share a common identity, which indirectly affects the results due to common influences.

Research Confederate

Someone who seems like a participant in a study, but is actually part of the study/working with the researcher.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Measures of Central Tendency

Shows trends in data - mean, median, mode

Measures of Variance

Shows how data relates to each other - range and standard deviation

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical curve that describes the distribution of many types of data. Most scores fall near the mean - 68% of scores fall within 1 standard deviation. Fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

Positive Skew

Tail of the graph is longer on the right than the left side. Most of the values are left of the mean as a result and the most extreme values are on the right side.

Negative Skew

Tail of the graph is longer on the left than the right side. Most of the values are right of the mean as a result and the most extreme values are on the left side.

Bimodal Distribution

A type of distribution characterized by two distinct peaks. Indicates the presence of a subgroup with different characteristics compared to the majority group.

Regression Towards the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores/evens to fall back towards the average.

Inferential Statistics

Used to make predictions about how a sample can be generalized to a larger population.

Scatterplot

Used to show correlation between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

Two related variables

r goes from -1 to 1, with 0 having no correlation, and -1/1 having strong correlation

Statistical Significance

Represented by p. p is how likely it is that the study’s results are by chance. Must be below 0.05 or 5% to be valid.

p-value

Represents the percent chance that the study’s results are due to chance. Must be below 5% for the study to be accepted.

Effect Sizes

The strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

Institutional Review Board

Administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Protect Participant from Harm

Minimize harm that the study could cause to participants.

Participant Confidentiality/Anonymity

Providing anonymity of information collected from research participants. Study doesn’t link individual responses with participants’ identities.

Deception

Misleading research participants about an experiment’s purpose, conditions, or procedures, or otherwise manipulating an experiment to control the behavior of the participants with the goal of producing better research results.

Participants must be debriefed after the study ends.

Debriefing

The post-experiment explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to the participants

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to psychology that emphasizes physiologically based causative factors and tends to focus on primarily biological therapies

Order of Classical Conditioning

NS → UCS → UCR → CS → CR

Habituation

Decreasing responsive with repeated stimulation

Associative Learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (operant conditioning)

Aversive Conditioning

The process by which an unpleasant stimulus is paired with an undesired behavior

Biological Preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

Biological Predisposition

An increased chance of developing a disease or pattern of behavior based on the genes one inherited

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus.

In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.