Dark Ages Final

Theodosius II

DEFINITION: Eastern Roman Emperor from 408 to 450 CE

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Ruled during time when W. R.E. was collapsing under barbarian invasions (sack of Rome in 410 CE), inherited throne (dynastic continuity), continued to Christianize empire following Theodosius I’s declaration of Christianity as state religion in 380 CE

SIGNIFICANCE: Left a legal legacy with his code, built the Theodosian Walls that symbolized military reisilience, convened the Council of Ephesus, overall securing the longevity of the Eastern Empire

Theodosian Walls

DEFINITION: Massive fortifications built around Constantinople between 408 and 413 CE as a triple-layered wall

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Constructed during barbarian invasions that sought to secure eastern capital, Constantinople was growing in population/importance

SIGNIFICANCE: Symbolized military resilience as they withstood invasions for over 1000 years, sheltered heart of Eastern Christianity, allowed emperor to appear as protector of empire

Pulcharia

DEFINITION: Elder sister of Emperor Theodosius II

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Assumed power as Augusta (influential imperial title/regenet) when Theodosius II was still a child, was pious and completed patronage (imperial politics role)

SIGNIFICANCE: Guided early reign of Theodosius, arranged marriage of Theodosius which strengthened imperial alliances, supported church construction/charitable works that allowed for cultural patronage, revealing agency of imperial women/constraints of gender norms

The Ruling City

DEFINITION: Capital of Eastern Roman Empire founded by Constantine I in 330 CE

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Refounded by Constantine I as New Rome as Christian imperial capital, location connected trade routes w/ Black Sea access

SIGNIFICANCE: Served as bureaucratic and imperial center for the Eastern Empire, was an economic trade hub with the routes it controlled, preserved Greco-Roman traditions, became center of Eastern Christianity protected by Theodosian Walls

Theodosian Code

DEFINITION: Compilation of Roman laws issued in 438 CE under Theodosisu II that systemized imperial legislation from Constantine I onward

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Roman law accumulated over centuies but scattered into edicts and decrees, needing unification, which also included Christian moral and doctrinal concern

SIGNIFICANCE: Provided legal clarity that reflected bureaucratic sophistication, integrated Christian values in Roman law, reinforced emperor’s role as lawgiver, influenced medieval European law, and set the stage for Justinian’s more comprehensive Corpus Juris Civilis in the 6th century

Attilia

DEFINITION: Ruler of the Huns from 434 till 453 CE

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Huns were Central Asian nomadic people

SIGNIFICANCE: Posed a threat to Eastern roman empire and was able to force tribute from Constantinople to avoid invasion which demonstrated limits of Roman power

Council of Ephesus

DEFINITION: Convened by Emperor Theodosius II in Ephesus to resolve the controversy surrounding Nestorianism that emphasized distinction between Christ’s human and divine natures.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Fierce debates over Christ’s nature in 5th century, council convened to stabilize church and empire, built upon Nicene Creed and Council of Constantinople

SIGNIFICANCE: Condemned Nestorianism and affirmed title of Mary as Theotokos, strengthened authority of Bishop of Alexandria, demonstrated emperor's role in safeguarding orthodoxy, set stage for later Christological debates

Council of Chalcedon

DEFINITION: Produced the Chalcedonian Definition affirming Christ’s two natures

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Doctrinal unity also prioritized by Pulcheria, built upon Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus, Chalcedon was close to Constantinople showcasing importance of centrality to creating religious doctrine

SIGNIFICANCE: Chalcedonian Definition became cornerstone of orthodox Christianity, Pulcheria was Augusta and thus played key role in convening council, reinforeced emperor’s role, created Pulcheria’s legacy highlighting how imperial women could legitimize/direct major religious decisions

Anastasius I

DEFINITION: Eastern Roman Emperor from 491 to 518 CE that came to power after Zeno,known for strengthening defenses, leaving a large treasury surplus, but causing controversial religious policies

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Ruled when Eastern Roman empire has developed wealth and status as the “New Rome”, empire was divided between Chalcedonian Christians and Monophysites, threats from Persians and Bulgars

SIGNIFICANCE: Simplified taxation/new coinage, strengthened fortifications, built Anastasian Wall as a defensive barrier , has monophysite sympathies that alienated Chalcedonians, left treasury surplus for Justinian, remembered as very effective due to ability to balance reform with stability

Zeno’s Henotikon

DEFINITION: Document issued by Zeno in 482 CE intended as a compromise between supporters between Chalcedon and Monophysite supporters but deliberately avoided Chalcedonian formula of “two natures”

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Council in 451 declared two natures, Zeno sought unity due to political instability

SIGNIFICANCE: Illustrated empires struggle to reconcile doctrinal differences, refusing to affirm “one” or “two” natures left theology unresolved, highlighting difficulty of balancing theological precision with political compromise in Late Antiquity

Justinian

DEFINITION: Byzantine empror from 527 to 565 remembered for ambitious legal reform, military reconquest, and monumental building projects that marked a high point in Byzantine imperial ambition

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Rose under uncle Justin I, Western Roman Empire fell and he sought to restore through recoquest, faced Nika Riots, devastating plagues, and constant wars w Persia

SIGNIFICANCE: Commissioned Corpus Juris Civilis, reconquests restored Roman control, oversaw construction of Hagia Sophia, showcasing ambition to restore Rome’s glory

Justinian economics

DEFINITION: Marked by ambitious projects, legal codification, military reconquests, monumental architecture, requiring heavy taxation/financial management

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Sought to restore Roman greatness, rebuilding of Constantinople following Nika req. expenses, Plague reduced population/tax revenues

SIGNIFICANCE: Heavy taxation funded wars/building projects, reconquests restored expansion but drained resources, continued use of solidus, trade expansion of silk boosted economic independence

Great Plague

DEFINITION: Plague of Justinian first recorded pandemic of bubonic plague that spread from Egypt through Constantinople

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Occurred during Justinian’s ambitious reconquests/building projects that compouded imperial resources

SIGNIFICANCE: Killed 25-50 million people, weakened military ability to sustain reconquests, seen as divine punishment to reinforce Christianity

Justinian Conquests

DEFINITION: 527 to 565 CE that attempted to restore Roman control over the Mediteranean and led by generals like Belisarius

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Sought to revive glory of Rome w reconquering lost western provinces, W. Roman Empire fallen that left territories under Germanic kingdoms, economic strain w plague/heavy taxation

SIGNIFICANCE: Belisarius defeated Vandals in Africa which restored North Africa to imperial control, Gothic War devastated Italy but brought it under Byzantine rule, captured parts of southern Spain from Visigoths, BUT resources were drained as well as populations

Theodora

DEFINITION: Wife of Emperor Justinian I that became influential women known for political acumen, advocator of women’s rights, shaped imperial policy alongside Justinian

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Born into lower class family and married Justinian despite social barriers

SIGNIFICANCE: Acted as closest advisor for Justinian, advocated for women’s reforms (divorce rights, impoved legal protections for actresses that reflected own background of exploitation), supported monophysite communities, rose from humble origins

Nika Riots

DEFINITION: Massive uprising in Constantinople sparked by sports rialry between rivaling chariot factions (blues and greens) that escalated into city-wide revolt against imperial taxation/authority

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Sports teams also represented political and social groups, heavy taxes to fund Justinian wars/building projects fueled resentment, triggered by dispute at Hippodrome over arrests of faction members that ignited violence, rioters burned Constantinople,

SIGNIFICANCE: Generals like Belsarius suppressed the revolt that caused severe casulaties, Theodora’s intervention with famous speech ensured survival/demonstrated influence in imperial politics, destruction allowed Justinian to rebuild Constantinople, riots revealed power of popular factions and volatility of urban politics in Byzantium

Justinian Marriage Laws

DEFINITION: Reforms introduced in Corpus Juris Civilis from 527 to 565 that regulated marriage, divorce, dowries, and social status that reflected both Roman legal traditions and Christian moral values

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Marriage before was treated as a civil contract, Christianity reshaped imperial law that emphasized marriage as a sacred bond but marriage laws reinforced class divisions which limited unions between different classes

SIGNIFICANCE: Justinian’s marriage to Theodora became and exception, divore was made more difficult to represent Christian ideals of permanence, sought to elevate moral tone of society to discourage causual unions/reinforce Christian family values

Procopius of Caesarea

DEFINITION: Byzantine historian and secretary to Belisarius, known for detailed accounts of war, buildings, and court life that include official histories and scandalous critiques of Justinian/Theodora

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Became assessor to Belisarius and accompanied him on campaigns, witnessed Justinian’s reconquests, wrote during a time of imperial ambition, plague, and religious controversy

SIGNIFICANCE: Wars provide narrative of Justinian’s military campaigns essential for reconstructing events, buildings preserve descriptions of monuments, secret history offers rate perspective on imperial rule that contrasts with official propoganda,

Hagia Sophia

DEFINITION: Monumental church built in Constantinople under Justinian I between 532 and 537 CE

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Commissioned by Justinian after destruction during Nika Riots, famous for massive central dome, mosaics, and pendentive construction, as well as principal church of Constantinople/seat of Patriarch that symbolized union of empire and faith

SIGNIFICANCE: Architecture symbolized innovation, grandeur represented Justinian’s vision of a Christian empire, religious symbolism central to Orthodox Christianity that featured imperial figures, showcased as both a spiritual and political monument that embodied Justianian ambition, engineering genius, and layered religious history of Constantinople

Corpus luris civilis

DEFINITION: Codification of Roman law commissioned by emperor Justinian I between 529 and 534 CE that systemized Roman legal tradition into coherent body of law and formed foundation of Byzantine jurisprudence and later European civil law

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Marked difference from Theodosius’s codex because it followed fall of Rome, was a comprehensive system of statues, teaching manuals, new laws, etc, for broader imperial administration, compiled into codex, digest, institutes, and novellae,

SIGNIFICANCE: Provided stable legal framework for Byzantine governance, incorporated Christian values into Roman law,

Three Chapter Controversy

DEFINITION: Theological and political dispute centered on Justinian I’s condemnation of 3 sets of writings and authors associated w Nestorianism

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Tensions persisted after Council of Chalcedon between those Christians and Monophysites, allowing Justinian to condemn three sets of writings to appease Monophysites without overturning Chalcedon, Council of Constantinople II reinforced this condemnation

SIGNIFICANCE: Attempted reconciliation with Monophysites failed and Chalcedonians felt betrayed, sparked resistance in West leading to prolonged schisms, showed Justinian’s deep involvement in theological disputes (caesaropapism), highlighting difficulty of balancing doctrinal precision w political unity that foreshadowed later East and West divisions

Byzantine-Persian Wars

DEFINITION: Military conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Empire of Persia driven by deep seated geopolitical rivalries over lucrative territories

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Began when Kawad I attacked Byzantine territory, Justinian’s wars connected with western reconquests, The Last Great War between Heraclius and Khosrow II that led to both empires being weakened and rapid expansion of the Arab Caliphate

SIGNIFICANCE: Continuous wars drained both empires resources, control of holy sites added symbolic weight, marking an end of Roman-Persian rivalry and transition to Islamic dominance in Near East

Vandal Wars

DEFINITION: A Byzantine military campaign from 533 to 534 under general Belisarius to reconquer North Africa from Vandal Kingdom, restoring Roman control over Carthage

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Vandal kingdom est. in 5th century and captured Carthage, religious tensions/moral pretext b/t Arianism vs. Nicene populations, Belisarius landed near Carthage and defeated them at Battle of Ad Decimum/Tricamarum

SIGNIFICANCE: Marked first major success of Justinian’s reconquest program, restored Nicene Christianity in North Africa, showcased Belisarius’s skill

Reconquest of Italy

DEFINITION: Gothic War led by Belisarius to reclaim Italy from Ostrogoths

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Theoderic ruled after 476 CE, Justinian sought imperial restoration, captured Sicily, Naples, Rome, and took Ravenna, resurgence but later defeat and success of Justinian

SIGNIFICANCE: Italy reincorporated into Byzantine Empire, prolonged warfare devastated Italy, success was temporary due to Lombard invasion, showcasing how reconquest could achieve symbolic victories but undermine long-term stability

Belsarius

DEFINITION: Served under Justinian I who conducted brilliant military campaigns

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Fought in Vandal Wars, Gothic Wars, Battle of Dara against Sasanians, in the Nika Riots

SIGNIFICANCE: Remained loyal to Justinian and a symbol of virtue and skill - military cornerstone of Justinian’s reign

Amalasuntha

DEFINITION: Queen of Ostrogoths in Italy, daughter of Theodoric the Great

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Gained legitimacy as daughter of Theodoric among the Ostrogoths, served as regent for her son Athalaric, advocated for Roman influenced education/administration, faced opposition from Gothic nobles that rejected pro-Roman stance, maintained correspondence/alliance with Justinian, after son’s death she ruled jointly with her counsin Theodahad who betrayed her

SIGNIFICANCE: Acted as a cultural mediator between Gothic and Roman traditions, regency and authority highlighting the role of women in politics, murder provided Justinian pretext to launch Gothic War and reconquer Italy, embodied tension between barbarian kingship and Roman imperial legacy, remembered as tragic figure who pro-Roman policies foreshadowed Byzantine intervention

Persia

DEFINITION: Historic region centered in modern-day Iran

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Passed through Seleucid and Parthian rule (Iranian traditions/hellenistic influences) before Ardashir I overthrew the Parthians and established the Sasanian dynasty (Persian culture/Zoroastian religion)

SIGNIFICANCE: Sasanian Empire was considered Rome’s equal and it’s Zoroastrianism religion became a defining feature of Persian identity, with the Sasians representing that last great pre-Islamic Persian empire

Khusro I

DEFINITION: Most celebrated ruler of Sasanian empire from 531-579 CE that marked a high point of Sasanian power, described as “Anushirvan (Immortal Soul)”

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Resumed Byzantine wars, allied w Western Turks to destory Hepthalite Empire, reorganized taxation, established professional standing army, reduced influence of nobility

SIGNIFICANCE: Administrative reforms created a more centralized/stable empire, expanded Persian influence, seen as leading the golden age of Sasanian culture

Khusro II

DEFINITION: Last great king of Sasanian Empire from 590 to 628 CE, “shahansha “king of kings”,called parviz (“the victorious”), gained ipmerial support from Eastern empire’s Maurice

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: The Sasanian empire was at peak expansion during 7th century, but long wars exhausted Persia’s economy/military

SIGNIFICANCE: Ambitious wars left Persia open for collapse, Byzantine-Sasanian War’s weakened economy/Zorastrian clergy ability to maintain order, favored Christianity that undermined Zoroastrian exclusivity, concentrated authority in moarch that diminished Magi (Zoroastrian priesthood), execution in 628 let to rapid change of rulers and succession instability

Mani and Zoroastrianism

DEFINITION: Mani attempted to syncretize Zorastrianism with other religions, but Zorastrians wanted sovereignty centered on Ahura Mazda and dualist struggle between truth and falsehood

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Mani attempted to spread Manichaeism that integrated multiple traidtions, while Zorastrianism was the SE’s state religion, and Mani’s teachings threated Zoroastrian orthodoxy

SIGNIFICANCE: Mani created a universalist faith and challenged orthodoxy

Kerdir

DEFINITION: Powerful Zoroastrian high priest in 3rd century rising to prominese under Shapur I that became the chief architect of Zoroastrian orthodoxy

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Organized priesthood, standardized rituals, and established hierarchy of fire temples while suppressing religious rivals to promote Zoroastrian exclusivity

SIGNIFICANCE: Embedded Zoroastrianissm into a centralized state-backed religion

Zoroastrian opinions on other religions

DEFINITION: Many like Kerdir attempted to suppress rival traditions (Christianity, Judaism, Manichaism) even those Zoroastrian concepts shaped the development of these faiths

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: During the Sasanian Empire, Zoroastrianism became the state religion as opposed to past centuries of religious plurarlism

SIGNIFIANCE: Judaist concepts of angels/demons and resurrection were influenced by Zoroastrian dualism, Christianity shared ideas of heaven/hell, Manichaism directly opposed by Zoroastrian clergy

Farr and Shahanameh

DEFINITION: Farr is the Zoroastrian concept of divine glory/charism granted by Ahura Mazda, while the shahanameh is a person national epic that recounts mythic/historical kings

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Farr is embedded into the narrative of Persian kingship as Shahanameh preserved Sasanian and earlier tradition and showcased that dynasties rise when kings posess farr and collapse when they lose it

SIGNIFICANCE: Farr explains why certain kings succeed and others fail, while the Shahnameh preserves these histories/faliures to ensure continuity of Iranian Identity

Persian art and status

DEFINITION: Visual makers communicated rank/divine favor that were used on rock reliefs/silver vessels/stucco

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Kings like Ardashit and Shapur I commissioned monumental rock carvings showing invesiture scenes (Recieving of farr)

SIGNIFICANCE: Art reinforced posession of farr, visually seperated kings from nobles

Characteristics of Persian Kingship

DEFINITION: King was seen as a secular monarch (shahanshah) and divinely sanctioned individual (farr)

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: By the Sasanian Empire, kingship became closely centralized and tied with Zoroastrianism and divine legitimacy

SIGNIFICANCE: Rulers seen as divenly legitimate, absolute moarchs, religious keeps

Bozorjmehr

DEFINITION: Noble man and military commander in the Sasanian Empire

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: High official (Vizier to Khosrou I), appeared in Shahanameh

SIGNIFICANCE: Became chief vizier under Khosrou I, created of backgammon that showcased Persian intellectual superiority

Mecca v. Medina

DEFINITION: Mecca is the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad while Medina is where Muhammad migrated in 622 CE and est the first Muslim community

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Mecca was a thriving trade hub and religious center w multiple tribal identities but Muhammad faced persecution in 622 CE and had to migrate to Medina

SIGNIFICANCE: Mecca remains the holiest city in Isman while Medica represents the birth of the ummah and site of Muhammad’s leadership/early battles/codification of Islamic governance

Beduin

DEFINITION: Nomadic Arab tribes

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Controlled trade routes and maintained oral traditions of poetry/storytelling, crucial in early spread of Islam to facilitate Muhammad’s message

SIGNIFICANCE: Were a part of broader tibal networks that sustained Mecca’s economy/culture

Ka’aba

DEFINITION: Most sacred site in Islam and Hajj pilgrimage that is cube-shaped and located in center of Great Mosque

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Shrine to house idols of various tribal deities, Ka’abe cleansed by Muhammad of idols after conquest of Mecca in 630 CE

SIGNIFICANCE: Holiest site in Islam and direction of prayer for Muslims, represents unity of Muslim community, care of building biuld legitimacy of ruling tribes/dynasties

Hijaz

DEFINITION: Region encompassing citis of Mecca, Medina, and Jeddah

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Crossroads of trade routes that linked Mediterranean, Africa, Arabia, and Medina as key urban centers, became spirtiual head of Islam due to Muhammad;s role, control allowed for religious legitimacy

SIGNIFICANCE: Acts as spiritual core of Muslim world, control legitimized rulers, melting pot of communities that shaped Islamic idetnity and Arab cultrure, destination of millions of pilgrims annually

Allah and Umma

DEFINITION: Allah is the Arabic word for God (one, omnipotent creator) and the ummah is the global community of muslims

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: After Muhammad Allah because the sold diety and Qu’ran emphasized allah’s uniqueness while ummah emerged during Muhammad’s leadership through the Constitution of Medina to unite tribes under shared governance

SIGNIFICANCE: Allah is central to the practice where devotion is directed, represents continuity of monotheism, and shapes islamic ethics/law while the ummah embodies the unity and solidarity of muslims

Quraysh

DEFINITION: Powerful Arab tribe based in Mecca

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Consolidated control over Mecca and Ka’aba that turned it into a pilgrimage center, grew weather from trade routes, initally opposed Muhammad for fear of losing economic and religious prestige

SIGNIFICANCE: Quraysh lineage gave marker of legitimacy for caliphs/dynasties

Ibn Ishaq

DEFINITION: Early Muslim historian and biographer of Prophet Muhammad

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Born in Medina around 704 CE and wrote oral taditions of Muhammad’s genealogy, revelations, battles, and treaties

SIGNIFICANCE: Sira foundational for Islamic historiography

Abu Talib

DEFINITION: Served as Muhammad’s guardian after death of his grandfather

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Member of the Quraysh elite, took Muhammad into household and raised him alongeside his own children, defended Muhammad while he did not publically convert

SIGNIFICANCE: Protection of Muhammad allowed early message of Islam to survive in Mecca despite Quraysh's hostilty, kinship duty/tribal solidarity shown through his loyalty despite not converting

Quran

DEFINITION: Central religious text of Islam percieved by Muslima and word of Allah revealed to Muhammad through angel Gabriel, composed into 114 surahs

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Revelations because in 610 CE for 23 years, intially presevred orally/in fragments, first caliph Abu Bakr ordered complation, standardized under Uthman, oral recitation remained central

SIGNIFICANCE: Foundation of islamic sharia and ritual practice, inspired arabic culture, use to legitimze rulers/policies/inspire reform/resistance, Qur’an remains most widely memorized book

Spread of Islam

DEFINITION: Historical expansion of Islam from the Arabian Peninsula beginning in 7th century CE

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Muhammad began Islam in Mecca, Rashidun Caliphate began early conquests in Persian/Eygpt while Umayyad expansion reached Spain/Central Asia/North Africa

SIGNIFICANCE: Marked as world’s major monotheistic fathers, unified diverse religions under caliphates/empites, emdedded Islamic law and governance

Ummayad Caliphs

DEFINITION: First hereditary dynasty of Islamic rulers established after the assassination of Caliph Ali

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Emerged during Second Civil War, shifted capital from Medina to Damascus (closer to Byzantine/Sasanian administrative traditions), rapid expansion, instituted Arabic as language of administration, standardized coinage, built monumental architecture (Dome of the Rock)

SIGNIFICANCE: Claimed succession to Muhammad which sparked debates if caliphs should embody prophetic justice or political pragmatism, institutionalized Islam as state religion, inherited farr

Battle of Yarmuk

DEFINITION: Confrontation between Rashidun Caliphate vs Byzantine Empire in 636 CE near Yarmuk River, marking Muslim control over Syria

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: During islamic conquests following death of Muhammad, led between Walid and Heraclius, lasting 6 days

SIGNIFICANCE: Continiuation of mission to spread Muhammad’s Islam, reinforced divine favor of caliphs, Byzantines retreated permanently from Syria (Sasanian decline)

Arab army

DEFINITION: Military forces of early Islamic community under Rashidun Calips

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Army expanded dramtically after Muhammad’s death, organized garrison cities, relied on light cavalry/swift raids/use of desert mobility

SIGNIFICANCE: Victories seen as divine favor and vision of united ummah, decisive force that ended Sasanian empire with Wadisiyyah, Ctesiphon, and Nahavand - Sasanian military tactics but Islamic (not Zoroastrian) legitimacy

Dome of the Rock

DEFINITION: Dome built under Abd al-Malik in Jerusalem

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Under Umayyad ruled as political and religious statement to rivaling religions to emphasize Islamic monotheism/Muhammad’s prophetic mission

SIGNIFICANCE: Linked to Muhammad’s Night Journey, Sasanian imperial traditions of monumental architecture/divine kingship

Great Mosque

DEFINITION: Built under Caliph al-Walid I constructed on a former Christian basilica

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Symbolized transformation of ssacred space, functioned as both religious center and political symbol of Umayyad authority

SIGNIFICANCE: Embodied Muhammad’s vision of mosque as heart of the community, reinforced continuity of Muhammad’s mission by institutionlizing worship/governance

Abbasid dynasty

DEFINITION: Third Islamic caliphate

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Overthrew Umayyad’s into 750 supported by Shi’i Arbs and Persians, shifted capital from Damascus to Baghdad, overrsaw Islamic Golden Age

SIGNIFICANCE: Continued as symbol of kingship by adopting idea of divine favor

Abu Bakr

DEFINITION: Close companion of Muhammad and first caliph of Islam

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Chosen as caliph in 632 CE after Muhammad’s death

SIGNIFICANCE: Responsible for compiling the Qur’ran and known as “Caliph of the Messenger of God”, led army campaigns against Sasanianss

Ridda Was

DEFINITION: Series of military campaigns by Abu bakr that targeted Arabian tribes who renounced Islam, refused to pay alms tax, or followed new prophets

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Muhammad’s led to allegiance to him not broader ummah, many tribal leaders claimed prophethod, Bakr insisted Islam’s commitment to permamance

SIGNIFICANCE: Affirmed Muhammad’s mission was lasting order, Bakr safeguarded legacy/ensured Qur’an were preserved, vision of ummah, consolidated Arabia

Uthman

DEFINITION: Third caliph of Rashidun Caliphate remembered for standardized compliation of Qur’ran

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Military expansions into Persia

SIGNIFICANCE: Leadership rooted in personal tied to Muhammad, codified Qur’ran against fragmentation as it spread (tension b/t community-based leadership & emerging dynastic/tribal politics)

Ali Talib

DEFINITION: 4th caliph marked reign w civil striph

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Became caliph after assasination of Uthman in 656 CE

SIGNIFICANCE: Kinship and spiritual closeness to Muhammad (cousin/son-in-law), final collapse of Sasanian Empire with integration of Persian lands, fragmentation with Shi’a vs. Sunni groups

First and Second Civil War

DEFINITION: First fought between Talib and rival factors due to assasination of Uthman, second between Zubayr and Shi’a

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: First led to Ali’s assassination which paved way for the Ummayyads to rise, second consolidated power under Abd al-Malik

SIGNIFICANCE: First highlighted how community-based unity fractured without prophetic authrotiy, second marked transition from conquest to imperial consolidation

Poirshariati Opinions

DEFINITION: Challenged strong Sasanaian state and stating it was confederacy of Parthian and Persian elites that had internal rivalries which weakened imperial cohesion

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Persian aristocrats absorbed into claiph systems

SIGNIFICANCE: Fitna was a larger geographical transformation replacing Sasanian kingship with Islamic caliphal authority

Leo III

DEFINITION: Head of Catholic Church from 795 to 816 CE that secured protection and legitimacy from Charlemagne, leading to the coronation of Charlemagne in Rome (800 CE)

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Faced opposition from Roman nobles who questioned legitimacy (didnt like his alliance with the Franks/commoner), fled to Charlemagne who offered military/political support, Leo crowned Charlemagne “Emperor of the Romans”, created Holy Roman Empire

SIGNIFICANCE: Elevated Charlemagne from king to emperor, strengthen position against rivals by divinely sanctioning power, Charlemagne as model of Christian kingship, aliance w eo set precent for church-state negotiations

Carolingian

DEFINITION: Frankish ruling family succeeding Merovingians

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Charles Martel consolidated Frankish power and defated Muslim forces at Battle of Tours, Pepin the Short deposed of last Merovingian king, Pepin’s alliance with papacy created Papal States

SIGNIFICANCE: Charlemagne inherited throne sancitifed by papal approval, church alliance allowed for imperial coronation by Leo III in 800, Carolingian Renaissance

Clovis I

DEFINITION: First king of Merovingian dynasty, uniting Frankish tribes into single kingdom and expanded across Gaul and converted to Christianity that aligned franks with RCC

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Became first Catholic king among Germanic rulers

SIGNIFICANCE: Established precedent of unified Frankish kingdom, aligned with Catholic church that created religious-political framework

Primogeniture

DEFINITION: Legal and social system where firstborn legitimate child inherits all or most of parent’s estate, title, or position

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Enforced hierarchical social structures and preserved aristocratic dominance, followed partible inheritance were kingdoms divided among all sons, led to fragmentation (civil wars/weakened dynastic power)

SIGNIFICANCE: Outcome of Charlemagne inheriting lands after his brother died established accidental primogeniture, demonstrated advantages of primogeniture with chaos showing dangers of partible inheritance and need for more stable system of succession

Saxons

DEFINITION: Confederation of Germanic tribes known for fierce independence, warrior culture, and resistance to Christianization

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Lived outside Roman Empire’s borders/maintained pagan traditions but were decentralized so hard to conquer, Charlemagne launched campaigns against them to enforce Christian convesion, ended in 804 CE with Saxon submission

SIGNIFICANCE: Charlemagne solidified rep as warrior-king, defender and spreader of faith, and laid groundwork for coronation as emperor in 800 CE

Battle of Tours

DEFINITION: Fought between Charles Martel and invading Muslim army

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Ummayad caliphate conquered most of Iberia by this time, Charles Martel defeateed Muslim force near Tours, reinforcing Martel’s authority/paving way for Carolingian dynasty to replace Merovingian

SIGNIFICANCE: Elevated prestige of Carolingians, groundwork for Pepin the Short to become king, Martel strengthened ties with Catholic Church, image of defender by Charlemage rooted in Martel’s precedent at Tours

Pepin the Short

DEFINITION: First king of Carolingian dynasty that was son of Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Alliance w the papacy cemented with creation of Papal States with Donation of Pepin

SIGNIFICANCE: Coronation gave divine sanction to ensure Charlemagne inherited throne already legitimized by the Church, Donation gave lasting papal-Frankish alliance, ended Merovingian rule with coronation, campaigns against Lombards provided Charlemagne with model of kingship as warrior/protector

Charles the Great (Charlemagne)

DEFINITION: King of Franks/Lombards/first Emperor of Romans remembered as founder of Carolingian Empire

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Crowned emperor in 800 CE and symbolized revival of Roman imperial title in West, promoted the Carolingian Renaissance

SIGNIFICANCE: Coronation established precedent of papal involvement in legitimizing emperors, enforced Christianization of Saxons, reign elevated Carolingians as heirs to Rome - memory as “Father of Europe”

Donation of Constantine

DEFINITION: Forged doccument claiming Emperor of Constantine the Great granted Pope authority over Rome, Western Roman Empire, and secular power

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Claimed Constantine converted to Christianity, healed by Pope Sylvester I, gave pope supremacy over Roman/Western Empire, rise of Carolingians

SIGNIFICANCE: Ideological justification for pope’s ability to crown emperors, papacy framed Charlemagne’s rule as continuation of Christian Roman emperorship, deepens alliance between Carolingians and Church, elevated Charlemagne’s coronation beyond Frankish kingship

Phocas

DEFINITION: Byzantine emperor that seized power in 602 CE after overthrowing Maurice

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Rose to power through military coup, widespread executions/purges/alienation of aristocracy & the church, mismanagement led to Byzantine-Sasanian War where Persia invaded Byzantine territory

SIGNIFICANCE: Phocas’s violent seizure set precedent for coups/weakened imperial legitimacy, catastrophic losses of Jerusalem and Egypt, recognition of papal primacy

Heraclius

DEFINITION: Overthrew Phocas 610 CE and ruled fo 3 decades, remembered for military victories against Persia/administrative reforms/struggles against early Islamic conquests

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Introduced the theme system of military provinces, defeated the Sasanian Empire in campaigns, shifted Byzantine identity toward more Greek Christian empire

SIGNIFICANCE: Victories against Persia restored Byzantine prestige, the theme system strengthened local defense, promoted theological compromises to unify Christians, showcasing reform and resilience as opposed to Phocas’s instability and decline

Loss of Jerusalem

DEFINITION: City’s capture by the Rashidun Caliphate in 638 CE that ended years of Byzantine Christian control

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Became major Christrian pilgrimage center with Church of the Holy Sepulchre under Constantine, Sasanian Persian briefly seized, emperor Heraculius regained after defeating Persia

SIGNIFICANCE: Byzantium no longer controlled Christianity’s holiest city, beginning of permanent Muslim rule in Palestine

Avar/Slav Tribes

DEFINITION: Nomadic people, while Slavs were diverse tribal groups in Eastern Europe

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Byzantine emperors faced repreated incursions by Avar-Slav coalitions into Balkans, Avars besieged Constantinople in 626 CE,

SIGNIFICANCE: Both groups devastated Byzantine provinces in Blakans, wars against Avars and Slavs coincided w Byzantine struggles against Persia and Islam

Heraclius’s Campaigns

DEFINITION: Campgains fo Heraclius were military expeditions launched during Byzantine/Sasanian War from 602 to 628

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Utilized theme system to strengthen lcoal defense, carried out daring campaigns deep into Persian territory, won decisive victory at Battle of Nineveh which crippled Persian forces

SIGNIFICANCE: Recovery of Jerusalem in 629 CE celebrated as divine vindication that reinforced his image as defender of Christendom, empire still exhausted and Arab Muslim armies conquered Syria, Palestine, and Egypt

Ekthesis

DEFINITION: Imperial decree by Heraclius promote Monothelitism as attempt to resolve disputes between Chalcedonian’s and Miaphysites

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Rapid expansion of Islam v internal Christian divisions following war, Council of Chalcedon declared Christ as having 2 natures

SIGNIFICANCE: Heraclius’s attempt to use imperial power to enforce religious unity, rejection by Rome deepened tensions b/t Byzantine and papacy, created new controversy

Theophanes

DEFINITION: Byzantine monk and historian that opposed iconoclasm

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Lived during Iconoclastic Controversy over legitimacy of religious images in Byzantine worship, Chronographia compiled using earlier sources, portrayed iconoclast emperors negatively

SIGNIFICANCE: Writings enforced iconophile position, resistance to iconoclasm earned him sainthood, feast day commemorates role as defender of orthodoxy

Sophronius

DEFINITION: Byzantine monk, theologian, and Patriarch of Jerusalem, known for rhetorical skill, venerated as saint in both Eastern Orthodox/Catholic traditions

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Faced doctrinal crisis because he opposed imperial doctrine of Monothelitism and witnessed siege of Jerusalem and had to negotiate Christian privileges

SIGNIFICANCE: Acted as a theological defender of Chalcedonian orthodoxy, surrender of Jerusalem ensured relatively peaceful transition, embodies Byzantine Church’s shift from imperial protection to coexistence under Islamic governance

Justin II & Sophia

DEFINITION: Byzantine emperor from 565 to 578 CE remembered for ambitious but ultimately destabilizing politics

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Reign expanded empire but left it financially strained, Justin II suffered from severe mental illness, Sophia stepped in as regent and maintained influence ven after Justin’s death

SIGNIFICANCE: Refusal to pay tribute/aggressive policies accelerated territorial losses that weakeend Byzantine control, Sophia’s regency example of female politcal power in Byzantium,

Maurice

DEFINITION: Byzantine emperor from 582 from 602 CE remembered for military campaigns against Persians and Avars

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Rose from military background, dominated by wars against Persia and Avars and Slavs, created theme system that gave land to soldiers in exchange for service, tried to cut cots by reducing military pay/refusing to ransom capitives

SIGNIFICANCE: Maurice’s reforms laid groundwork for theme’s system, overthrow destabalized empire that led to renewed war with Persians/setting stage for Arab conquests

Lombards

DEFINITION: Germanic people who migrated into Italy in late 6th century

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Kingdom of Lombards est. that became dominant power after decline of Byzantine control, invaded Italy in 568 CE, retained control of Rome/Ravenna, conquered by Charlemagne in 774 under Carolingian Empire

SIGNIFICANCE: End of Byzantine dominance, gradual conversion to Christianity aligned themselves w papacy, threat of Lombards pushed popes to seek protection from Franks

Constans II

DEFINITION: Constantine the Bearded was Byzantine empror during Arab conquests and regional controversy over Monothelitism

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Death of father Heraclius promoted him to rule, coincided with rapid expansion of Arab Caliphate, issued Typos to prohibit discussion of Christ’s will

SIGNIFICANCE: Attempt to silence theological debate deepened tensions with papacy, moved capital to Syracuse that signaled shift in imperial focus

Constantine IV

DEFINITION: Son of Constans II known for first Arab siege and presiding over Third Council of Constantinople that resolved Monothelite controversy

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Empire under immense pressure from Umayyad Caliphate, Byzantine defenses (Greek fire) repelled them, Third Council convened

SIGNIFICANCE: Preserved Constantinople with military defenses, strengthened ties by ending Monothelite contoversy, remembered as svior of Byzantium

Iconoclasm

DEFINITION: Use and veneration of religious images in 8th century was officially banned

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Leo III enforced iconoclastic policies and persecuted iconophile monks, convened Council of Hieria that endorses iconoclasm (heretical), movement ended when Irene restorced icons at Second Council of Nicaea

SIGNIFICANCE: Forced Byzantines to clarify theology of images, defense of icons emphasized incarnation (Christ’s humanity could be depicted, iconoclasm used to assert contol over church/alienate monastic communities, icons and works of art destroyed/replaced Byzantine artistic traditions, controversy reinforced symbolic power of icons in Byzantine spirituality,

Leo III

DEFINITION: Byzantine emperor in early 8th century known for defending Constantinople against Arab, initiating first phase of Iconoclasm

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Became emperor and faced Arab siege but repelled attack, started Iconoclastic Controversy

SIGNIFICANCE: Victory against Arabs was turning point in halting Islamic expansion into Europe, Iconoclasm sparked conflict about iconoclasts and iconophiles, influenced Byzantine law/reflected integration of Christian ethics into imperial governance

Constantine V

DEFINITION: Remembered as formidable military leader and more aggressive proponents of Iconoclasm

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Convened Council of Hieria that condemned veneration of icons as heretical

SIGNIFICANCE: Deepened divisions within Byzantine society by alienating monastic communities and shaping empires theological trajectory

John of Damascus

DEFINITION: Christian monk and priest that defeneded icons during Byzantine Iconoclastic Contoversy

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Defneding veneration against banning icons

SIGNIFICANCE: Believed Christ could be depicted in human form since Christ became human, central to restoration at Second Council of Nicaea

Second Council of Nicaea

DEFINITION: Convened in 787 CE by Irene and Constantine VI to restore veneration of icons

HISTORICAL CONTEXT: Followed decades of iconoclastic policy, reconvened by Irene and affirmed icons could be honored but not worshipped

SIGNIFICANCE: Clarified theology of images that grounded veneration in the Incarnation, restored communion w papacy, Irene’s role demostrated how empresses could shape religious policy, restoration revitalized Byzantine art

Historiography Debates

• Edward Gibbon

  • Rome fell through moral decay and the weakening of civic virtue, worsened by Christianity.

  • Saw the transition as a catastrophic fall into the “Dark Ages.”

• Peter Brown

  • Reframed the era as Late Antiquity, a time of cultural transformation and creativity.

  • Emphasized continuity, adaptation, and the rise of Christianity rather than collapse.

• Bryan Ward-Perkins

  • Argued for real material collapse: loss of trade, urban life, and everyday prosperity.

  • Defended the “Dark Ages” framing as historically accurate for ordinary people.

• Michael Meckler – “Jerry Springerization”

  • Criticized the debate’s polarized theatrics, likening it to staged drama.

  • Urged moving beyond extremes of “catastrophe” vs. “transformation.”

• Clifford Ando – “Decline, Fall, and Transformation”

  • Showed that these terms are constructed categories, inherited from ancient rhetoric.

  • Emphasized Rome’s end as a multi-layered process of continuity and change.

• Anthony Kaldellis – “Late Antiquity Dissolves”

  • Warned that the concept of Late Antiquity has become too diffuse, obscuring sharp ruptures.

  • Stressed