AP Psych Cumulative 9 Week Exam

case study

In-depth examination of an individual or small group over an extended period, often using a variety of data sources such as interviews, observations, and psychological tests.

confounding variable

A variable other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable, leading to inaccurate interpretations of the results.

control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used for comparison with the experimental group.

correlation

A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables, indicating how they change together. However, correlation does not imply causation.

correlation coefficient

A numerical value between -1 and +1 that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

critical thinking

The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue to form a judgment. It involves questioning assumptions, examining evidence, and considering alternative perspectives.

debriefing

The process of providing participants with information about the purpose, procedures, and results of a research study after their participation, especially if deception was used.

dependent variable

The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment and is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

descriptive statistics

Statistical techniques used to summarize and describe the characteristics or properties of a dataset, such as measures of central tendency and variability.

double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

effect size

A measure of the strength or magnitude of the relationship between variables or the magnitude of a treatment effect, independent of sample size.

experiment

A research method in which one or more variables are manipulated to observe the effect on another variable, while controlling for extraneous factors.

experimental group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment or intervention being studied.

experimenter bias

The influence of the researcher's expectations or beliefs on the outcomes of an experiment, leading to unintentional bias in data collection or interpretation.

falsifiability

The principle that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to conceive of evidence that would prove it false.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. It's often referred to as the 'I knew it all along' phenomenon.

histogram

A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, where the data is divided into intervals (bins) and the height of each bar represents the frequency or count of data points within each interval.

hypotheses

Testable predictions or educated guesses about the relationship between two or more variables, typically formulated as statements.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, or the perceived relationship is weaker than it appears.

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

inferential statistics

Statistical techniques used to make inferences or predictions about a population based on sample data, including hypothesis testing and estimation.

informed consent

The ethical principle requiring that participants in a research study are fully informed about the nature, purpose, risks, and benefits of participation before agreeing to take part.

mean

The average of a set of values, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.

median

The middle value in a dataset when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order. If there is an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.

meta-analysis

A statistical technique for combining the findings from multiple studies on a particular topic to determine overall trends or effects.

mode

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

naturalistic observation

Observation of behavior in its natural context without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores in a population, with the mean, median, and mode all located at the center.

operational definitions

Precise descriptions of how variables in a study will be manipulated or measured. They specify the procedures used to define and measure concepts.

peer reviews

The evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others in the same field to ensure its quality and validity before publication or presentation.

percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular score.

placebo

An inactive substance or treatment that resembles the experimental treatment, used in research to control for the psychological effects of receiving treatment.

placebo effect

The phenomenon where individuals experience a change in their condition or behavior after receiving a placebo, due to their belief in the effectiveness of the treatment.

population

The entire group of individuals or cases that researchers are interested in studying and to which they intend to generalize their findings.

qualitative research

Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data, such as observations, interviews, or textual analysis, to understand meanings, experiences, or perspectives.

quantitative research

Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to understand relationships, patterns, or trends.

random assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental or control groups in a way that each individual has an equal chance of being placed in any group, reducing the likelihood of bias.

random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study, increasing the generalizability of the findings.

range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset, representing the spread or dispersion of the data.

regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores on a variable to move closer to the average or mean when measured again.

replicate

To repeat a research study or experiment to determine if the findings can be reliably reproduced.

sampling bias

A bias in which a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn, leading to inaccurate or ungeneralizable results.

scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, where each data point represents an individual's score on both variables.

self-report bias

Inaccuracies or distortions in responses to surveys or questionnaires due to factors such as social desirability, memory recall, or misunderstanding of questions.

single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which either the participants or the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group.

skewed distribution

A distribution of data in which the scores cluster more towards one end (positive skew) or the other end (negative skew) of the range, rather than being evenly distributed.

social desirability bias

The tendency for people to respond in a manner that they believe is socially acceptable or desirable, rather than providing honest or accurate answers.

standard deviation

A measure of the average distance of each data point from the mean of the dataset, indicating the degree of variability or dispersion in the data.

statistical significance

The likelihood that the results of a study are not due to chance, typically determined by comparing observed data with expected outcomes under the null hypothesis.

survey

A research method that involves collecting data from a population through the use of questionnaires or interviews to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics.

theory

A well-supported explanation for a phenomenon based on evidence, observation, and experimentation. It integrates and organizes a set of related principles or concepts.

validity

The extent to which a research study measures what it claims to measure or accurately reflects the concept or phenomenon being studied.

variable

Any factor or condition that can change or vary in a research study. Variables are typically categorized as independent or dependent.

absolute threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

accommodation

In vision, the process by which the lens of the eye shifts to focus on a particular object.

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation, memory, and learning.

action potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron, generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the neuron's membrane.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

A theory of dreaming that suggests dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

addiction

A complex condition characterized by compulsive drug use or behaviors despite harmful consequences.

agonist

A drug or chemical that enhances the activity of neurotransmitters.

Alcohol

A depressant that slows down the central nervous system, impairing cognitive and motor functions.

all-or-none response

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves associated with relaxation and wakefulness.

Amplitude

The height of a wave, which determines the loudness of a sound.

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

antagonist

A drug or chemical that inhibits or blocks the action of neurotransmitters.

Aphasia

A condition characterized by the loss of ability to understand or express speech.

association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions but are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

audition

The sense of hearing.

Auditory Cortex

The part of the brain that processes auditory information.

autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and glandular secretion.

axon

The extension of a neuron through which neural impulses are sent.

barbiturates

A class of drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

biological psychology

A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

blind spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a small gap in the field of vision.

blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to visual stimuli without consciously experiencing them.

bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.

Broca's Area

A region in the frontal lobe of the brain associated with speech production.

Caffeine

A stimulant found in coffee, tea, and many soft drinks that increases alertness and reduces fatigue.

central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing and coordinating information.

cerebellum

A structure in the hindbrain that helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.

cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for complex cognitive processes such as thinking, planning, and language.

circadian rhythm

The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant drug that increases levels of dopamine in the brain, leading to intense euphoria and increased energy.

cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.

cochlear implant

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

computed tomography (CT)

A scanning technique using multiple X-rays to construct a 3D image of the brain's structure.

conduction hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision and fine detail.

consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Consolidation Theory

The theory that sleep helps strengthen the neural connections that form our memories.

Contralateral Control

The principle that each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body.

cornea

The transparent outer layer of the eye that covers the pupil and iris and helps focus incoming light.

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

dendrites

Branchlike extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.