AP Biology Ultimate Guide flashcards

Elements

Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, such as oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N).

Trace Elements

Elements required by an organism in very small quantities, like iron (Fe), iodine (I), and copper (Cu).

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

Subatomic particles; protons are positively charged, neutrons are uncharged, and electrons are negatively charged.

Compounds

Consist of two or more elements held together by chemical bonds like ionic, covalent, or hydrogen bonds.

Water

The Versatile Molecule:Exhibits special properties due to hydrogen bonds, including cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high heat capacity, and expansion on freezing.

Acids and Bases

Solutions can be acidic (contain H+ ions), basic (contain OH- ions), or neutral (pH 7); measured using a pH scale.

Organic Molecules

Molecules containing carbon; important for life due to their versatility in bonding with other elements.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds with a ratio of approximately 1:2:1 of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; categorized as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides.

Proteins

Important for structure, function, and regulation of tissues and organs; composed of amino acids with different properties based on side chains.

Lipids

Consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; examples include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, serving various functions in the body.

Nucleic Acids

Molecules made up of nucleotides containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus; DNA and RNA are essential for genetic information and protein synthesis.

Cell Surface Markers

Glycoproteins and glycolipids exposed on the extracellular surface of cells, involved in cell recognition and adhesion.

Nucleus

Largest organelle directing cell activities, housing DNA organized into chromosomes, containing the nucleolus for rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis, composed of large and small subunits, can be free-floating or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Continuous channel providing support and transportation, rough ER with ribosomes and smooth ER synthesizing lipids and detoxifying.

Golgi Complex

Modifies, processes, and sorts proteins synthesized by ribosomes, packages products into vesicles for distribution.

Mitochondria

Power stations converting organic molecules into ATP, with inner and outer membranes, cristae, and matrix.

Lysosomes

Contain digestive enzymes to break down organelles and debris, essential in programmed cell death (apoptosis).

Vacuoles

Fluid-filled sacs storing various substances in plant cells.

Peroxisomes

Organelles detoxifying substances, producing hydrogen peroxide and breaking it down.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein fibers determining cell shape, including microtubules and microfilaments for cellular division and movement.

Plant Cells

Differ from animal cells with a cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole, and absence of centrioles.

Transport

Mechanisms like passive transport, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis for moving substances across membranes.

Bioenergetics

Study of how cells obtain and use energy.

Thermodynamics

Laws governing energy transfer, with the first law stating energy conservation and the second law emphasizing entropy.

Enzymes

Biological catalysts speeding up reactions by lowering activation energy, with specificity, active sites, and induced-fit mechanisms.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and enzyme regulation influencing reaction rates.

Allosteric Inhibitor

An inhibitor that binds to an allosteric site on an enzyme, causing a change in the enzyme's shape and preventing it from functioning at its active site.

Noncompetitive Inhibition

A type of inhibition where the inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site of the enzyme, distorting its shape and hindering its catalytic activity.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

A molecule consisting of adenosine bonded to three phosphates, storing a significant amount of energy in its phosphate bonds.

Cellular Respiration

The process of breaking down sugar to produce ATP, occurring in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration).

Photosynthesis

The process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy, involving the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen in the presence of light.

Chloroplast

Organelles found in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place, containing structures like the stroma, grana, and thylakoids.

Glycolysis

The initial stage of aerobic respiration where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid, producing ATP and NADH in the cytoplasm.

Krebs Cycle

Also known as the citric acid cycle, a stage of aerobic respiration where acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to produce citric acid, generating ATP, NADH, and FADH2 in the mitochondrial matrix.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The final stage of aerobic respiration involving the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis to produce ATP by utilizing the energy from high-energy electrons.

Chemiosmosis

The process where a proton gradient is used to generate ATP by allowing hydrogen ions to diffuse back into the matrix through ATP synthase, occurring in both photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Glycolysis

The process of breaking down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP.

Fermentation

A metabolic process that converts sugars to acids, gases, or alcohol in the absence of oxygen.

Cell Communication

The process by which cells detect and respond to signals in their environment.

Signal Transduction

The process by which an external signal is transmitted into the cell to trigger a response.

Homeostasis

The ability of living organisms to maintain internal stability in response to environmental changes.

Cell Cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication.

Mitosis

The process of cell division that results in two daughter cells with identical sets of chromosomes.

Haploid

A cell containing only one set of chromosomes.

Diploid

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes.

Gregor Mendel

The father of genetics known for his work on inheritance in pea plants.

Recombination Frequency

The percentage of recombination determined by adding up recombinants and dividing by the total number of offspring.

Linkage Mapping

Mapping of linkage groups where each map unit equals 1 percent recombination, based on the frequency of crossing-over between linked alleles.

Sex-Linked Traits

Traits carried on sex chromosomes, such as color blindness and hemophilia, with most found on the X chromosome.

Barr Bodies

Inactivated X chromosomes in female cells, visible as dark-staining bodies, due to X-inactivation during embryonic development.

Inheritance Patterns

Include incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenic inheritance, and non-nuclear inheritance through mitochondria.

Pedigrees

Special family trees showing genetic traits, helping determine if traits are recessive, dominant, or sex-linked.

Meiosis

The process of producing gametes in sex cells, involving two rounds of cell division (meiosis I and meiosis II) to create genetic variation.

DNA Structure

DNA consists of nucleotides with deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases, forming a double helix with complementary base pairing.

Genome Structure

All DNA for a species (genome) consists of chromosomes wrapped around histones, forming euchromatin (active genes) or heterochromatin (inactive genes).

DNA Replication

The process of copying DNA involving unwinding the double helix, forming a replication fork, and synthesizing new strands using DNA polymerase.

DNA Helicase

Enzyme that unwinds the double helix into two strands.

DNA Polymerase

Enzyme that adds nucleotides to an existing DNA strand.

DNA Ligase

Enzyme that brings together Okazaki fragments during DNA replication.

Topoisomerase

Enzyme that cuts and rejoins the DNA helix to relieve tension.

RNA Primase

Enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of RNA primers during DNA replication.

Transcription

Process of making an RNA copy of a DNA code.

Translation

Process of making a protein from an RNA template.

RNA

Single-stranded nucleic acid with ribose sugar and uracil base.

Exons

Regions in RNA that express the genetic code.

Introns

Noncoding regions in RNA that are removed during splicing.

Operon

Functional unit of DNA in bacteria consisting of structural genes, promoter, operator, and regulatory gene.

Point Mutations

Mutations resulting from a single nucleotide base substitution.

Gene Rearrangements

Mutations involving insertions, deletions, duplications, inversions, or translocations of DNA.

Recombinant DNA

DNA created by combining DNA from different sources.

Natural Selection

Mechanism of evolution where organisms with favorable traits survive and reproduce.

Mutation and Reproduction

Mutations that do not kill an organism before reproduction can be passed on to the next generation.

Survival of the Fittest

Traits that enhance an individual's reproductive success contribute to evolutionary fitness.

Sexual Selection

Females choosing mates based on specific traits, like a large and beautiful tail, is an example of sexual selection.

Genetic Drift

Changes in genetics due to random events like the bottleneck effect or founder effect, not natural selection.

Gene Flow

Movement of genes between populations through migration.

Directional Selection

A type of natural selection where one extreme phenotype is favored.

Stabilizing and Disruptive Selection

Stabilizing selection eliminates extreme traits, while disruptive selection favors multiple extremes.

Artificial Selection

Humans directly influencing the variation in other species.

Reproductive Isolation

Necessary for species to diverge and become reproductively isolated from each other.

Divergent Evolution

Species changing in different ways due to varied environmental pressures.

Punctuated Equilibrium

Rapid divergent evolution following a period of stasis.

Pre-zygotic and Post-zygotic Barriers

Prevent fertilization and affect hybrid offspring, respectively.

Convergent Evolution

Unrelated species developing similar traits due to similar selective pressures.

Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation

Speciation due to geographic isolation and within the same area, respectively.

Hardy-Weinberg Law

Genotype frequencies in a population remain constant if certain conditions are met.

Endotherms and Ectotherms

Animals generating internal heat versus relying on external sources for temperature regulation.

Imprinting and Habituation

Inborn behaviors and learned responses to stimuli.

Circadian Rhythms

Internal clocks regulating behaviors in animals and plants.

Symbiotic Relationships

Mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism among coexisting organisms.

Tropisms in Plants

Phototropism, gravitropism, and thigmotropism as plant responses to stimuli.

Ecology Levels

Biosphere, ecosystem, community, and population as ecological organization levels.

Primary Productivity

Gross and net productivity, energy flow in ecosystems, and ecological pyramids.

Keystone Species and 10% Rule

Species crucial for ecosystem balance and energy transfer efficiency in food chains.

Simpson’s Diversity Index

Formula to calculate species diversity in a community.

Population Growth and Carrying Capacity

Factors influencing population growth and the maximum population size a habitat can support.

Exponential Growth and Ecological Succession

Rapid population growth and predictable plant community changes over time.

Human Impact on the Environment

Various issues like greenhouse effect, pollution, and biodiversity reduction due to human activities.