PS101 Wagner College MIDTERM EXAMWITH COMPLETE VERIFIED SOLUTIONS (PASS GUARANTEE) | Quizlet

Define psychology

The study of the mind

Psychology vs. psychiatry

PhD vs. MD

The scientific method

1. Make a hypothesis 2. Gather data 3. Analyze results 4. Publish results

Types of studies

Correlational, surveys, case studies, experiments, and naturalistic observation

6 perspectives of psychology

Behavioral, Psychoanalytical, Humanistic, Cognitive, Biological/ Neuroscience, Evolutionary

Schools of cognitive thought

James (functionalism), Wundt (structuralism)

What did Darwin do

father of evolution that collected evidence on the Beagle and proposed theory of natural selection in his book, on the origin of species

What are genes?

segments of DNA

What are chromosomes?

Coiled up lengths of DNA molecules

Define genome

The whole of the genetic information of an organism

Nuerotransmitters

chemical messengers that relay neural messages across the synapse

Placticity

Brian can be shaped and changed through experience

nervous system organs

brain, spinal cord, nerves

endocrine system

works in conjunction with parasympathetic system to respond to danger; communicates with hormones directly into the bloodstream; helps regulate behaviors and emotions

Gage case study

Railroad worker that had his frontal lobe damaged in a major accident, was never the same again, he had anterograde amnesia

Brian Screening Technology

EEG, PET, MRI, FMRI

Layers of the brain

1) brainstem and cerebellum (lower) survival instincts

2) limbic system (middle) memory emotion

3) cerebrum (high) higher level human abilities

4 lobes of the brain

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus

Weber's Law

to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

anatomy of the vision process

Eye gathers light through a lens, focuses it, forms an image in the retina, a light sensitive layer of cells at the back of the eye

What are the 2 types of light sensitive cells?

Rods: detect intensity of light

Cones: detect colored light waves

Bipolar cells

collect impulses from rods and cones and transmits the information to the ganglion cells

Ganglion cells

form the optic nerve, which communicates information to the brain in the visual cortex in the occipital lobe, where two-dimensional information is converted into 3D

Electromagnetic spectrum

the entire range of electromagnetic energy; includes radio waves, x-rays, microwaves and visible light

Visible spectrum

tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to your eyes

visual sytem

color (wavelength) and intensity (brightness)

Trichromatic theory

Based on three different cone receptors

Explains initial stages of color sensation

Opponent process theory

Based on bipolar cells

Colors in complementary pairs

Explains afterimages

anatomy of hearing process

Airborne sound waves are released to the inner ear from the outer ear, through the ear canal to the eardrum (tympanic membrane)

what are the 3 bones that vibrations move along in the ears?

Hammer

Anvil

Stirrup

cochlea

the primary organ of hearing; transmits vibrations and focuses them on the basilar membrane

basilar membrane

a thin strip of hairy tissue that converts vibrations into neural messages

temporal lobe

Where neural messages travel; holds the auditory cortex in the brain

what are the 3 components of hearing?

Pitch: frequency of the sound wave

Loudness: amplitude of the sound wave (measured in decibels)

Timbre: waves complexity

Vestibular sense

sense of body orientation with respect to gravity (semicircular canals)

Kinisthetic sense

sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other receptors (joints, muscles and tendons)

Olfaction

sense of smell

Olfactory bulbs

brain sites of olfactory processing

Pheromones

chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of the species

Gustation

sense of taste

papillae

taste buds

parietal lobe

somatosensory cortex

anatomy of touch

The skin protects against surface injury, holds in bodily fluid, and helps regulate body temperature

pain

Arises from intense stimulations

Nociceptors

nerve cells that sense painful/unpleasant stimuli, affected by mood and expectation

phantom limb

an amputee feels sensations coming from missing the body part due to the brain generating sensations

Gate Control Theory

explains pain control, involves special interneurons that open or close the pain pathway running up the spinal cord toward the brain

Perception

a process that makes sensory patterns meaningful; produces an interpretation of the external world, not a perfect representation of it

feature detectors

cells in the cortex that specialize in detection of specific stimulus features

perceptual constancy

the ability to recognize the same object under different conditions, such as changes in illumination, distance or location

Gestalt Psychology

states that much of perception is shaped by innate factors built into the brain

Gestalt laws

Law of Similarity: tendency to group similar objects together

Law of Proximity: tendency to group things together that are near each other

Law of Continuity: tendency to prefer smoothly connected continuous figures to disjointed ones

Law of Common Fate: tendency to group objects together that have a similar motion or destination

Law of Pragnanz: tendency to perceive the simplest pattern possible

perceptual set

readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context; nature and nurture combine to create perceptual skills

Learning

a process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental process

Habituation

learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus

mere exposure effect

learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed

behavioral learning

forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses

classical conditioning

created by Pavlov with his study on dog's salivation; a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response

spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Simple Learning

Classical and operant conditioning

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

stimulus generalization

The baby conditioned to be scared of the white rat then afraid of dogs, fur coats, and bunnies

conditioned food aversion

the association between eating a food and getting sick

Thorndike's Law of Effect

responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated

Skinner's invention

Skinner box

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

primary vs secondary reinforcers

primary- help satisfy biological needs- food, water, social relations

secondary- derive their effectiveness from their association with primary reinforcers through classical conditions, learned

Premak Principle

States that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

observational learning

learning by observing others

insight learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known

Define latent learning

learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement

Define memory

storage and retrieval of information

3 basic functions of memory

Encoding, storing, retrieving info

4 activities of working memory

Central executive function, phonological, loop, sketch pad, and episodic buffer

Aspects of long term memory (LTM)

Semantic, procedural, episodic, & declarative memory

Case of HM

surgery which removed his hippocampus and amygdala to treat severe epilepsy, left him with anterograde amnesia

Differences between anterograde and retrograde amnesia

Anterograde is the non ability to remember new info after a certain point, they can remember everything up to there

Retrograde is the forgetting of all past information, the new information can be learned

implicit vs explicit memory

Implicit - retention independent of conscious recollection

Explicit - memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

retrieval cues

stimuli that help gain access to memories

maintenance rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal

- Maintenance rehearsal:

- Little effort, mechanical

- Ineffective retrieval

- Elaborative rehearsal:

- Requires effort, difficult

- Effective retrieval

Recall/recognition

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

gist

(n.) the essential part, main point, or essence

7 sins of forgetting

absent-mindedness, transience, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, persistence

2 techniques to increasing memory

Natural language mediators and mnemonics

Components of thought

Concepts, imagery, and cognitive maps, helps to guide our thought process

Imagery / cognitive maps

role of frontal lobe

Problem solving and making decisions

schema and script

Schema

A cluster of related concepts that provides content and expectations about the features likely to be found when you encounter familiar people, situations, images, and ideas

Script

A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings

Qualities of good thinkers

Using Algorithms and heuristics

Working backwards, using analogies

mental set (rigidity)

the tendency to fall into established thought patterns

self-imposed limitations

Using unnecessary restrictions; not thinking "outside the box"

bais to avoid

Conformation, hindsight, availability

Qualities of a genius

Define aptitude

a natural ability to do something

Define intelligence

an ability to take in information and use it to adapt to the environment