Learning and Motivation Exam 2

Thorndike’s law of effect

behaviors leading to a satisfying consequence are strengthened, while behaviors leading to an unsatisfying or annoying consequence are weakened 

operant behavior

class of emitted responses that result in certain consequences 

operant conditioning

effects of consequences upon behavior 

reinforcer

consequences following a behavior that increase the frequency of that behavior

punisher

consequences following a behavior that decrease the frequency of that behavior 

discriminative stimuli

stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforced and in the absence of which they are not; “set the occasion” for the behavior (SD)  

discriminative stimulus for punishment

a stimulus that signals that a response will be punished 

discriminative stimulus for extinction

stimulus that signals the absence of reinforcement (S-delta)

positive reinforcement

Presentation of desired stimulus which leads to increase in future strength of response 

negative reinforcement

Removal of aversive stimulus which leads to increase in future strength of response 

positive punishment

Presentation of aversive stimulus which leads to decrease in future strength of response 

negative punishment

Removal of desired stimulus which leads to decrease in future strength of response 

primary (unconditioned) reinforcer

event that is innately reinforcing (food, water, sexual contact, etc.) 

secondary (conditioned) reinforcer

event that is reinforcing because it has been associated with some other reinforcer; things we have learned to like (good grades: praise, nice car: popularity, etc.) 

generalized reinforcer

type of secondary reinforcer that has been associated with several other reinforcers (e.g., money: can get you food, clothing, entertainment, etc.) 

intrinsic reinforcement

reinforcement provided by the mere act of performing the behavior (spending time with friends because it is enjoyable) 

extrinsic reinforcement

reinforcement provided by some consequence that is external or additional to the behavior (working to earn money) 

natural reinforcers

reinforcers typically provided for a certain behavior within a specific setting (money is a natural consequence of selling merchandise)

contrived (artificial) reinforcers

reinforcers that have been deliberately arranged to modify a behavior and are not a typical consequence of that behavior (being allowed to watch television after studying for a certain amount of time) 

shaping

gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behavior 

continuous reinforcement schedule

in which each specified response is reinforced 

intermittent reinforcement schedule

in which only some responses are reinforced 

fixed ratio (FR) schedule

in which reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed, predictable number of responses 

variable ratio (VR) shedule

in which reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses 

fixed interval (FI) schedule

in which reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time 

variable interval (VI) schedule

in which reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time

fixed duration (FD) schedule

in which reinforcement is contingent upon continuous performance of a behavior for a fixed, predictable period of time 

variable duration (VD) schedule

in which reinforcement is contingent upon continuous performance of a behavior for a varying, unpredictable period of time 

Differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)

in which reinforcement is contingent upon emitting at least a certain number of responses in a certain period of time; reinforcement provided for responding at a fast rate 

Differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)

in which a minimum amount of time must pass between each response before the reinforcer will be delivered; reinforcement provided for responding at a slow rate 

Differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)

in which reinforcement is contingent upon emitting a series of responses at a set rate; reinforcement provided for responding neither too fast nor too slow 

fixed time (FT) schedule

in which the reinforcer is delivered following a fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior

variable time (VT) schedule

in which the reinforcer is delivered following a varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior 

conjunctive schedule

complex schedule in which the requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met, in any order, before a reinforcer is delivered 

adjusting schedule

in which the response requirement changes as a function of the organism’s performance while responding for the previous reinforcer 

chained schedule

consisting of a sequence of two or more simple schedules, each with its own discriminative stimulus and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer 

drive reduction theory

theory that an event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with reduction in some type of physiological drive 

premack principle

the notion that high-probability behavior can be used to reinforce low-probability behavior 

response deprivation hypothesis

the notion that a behavior can serve as a reinforcer when (1) access to the behavior is restricted and (2) its frequency falls below its baseline level of occurrence 

behavioral bliss point approach

theory that an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement 

goal gradient effect

increase in the strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near to the goal 

incentive motivation

motivation derived from some property of the reinforcer, as opposed to an internal drive 

noncontingent schedule of reinforcement

in which the reinforcer is delivered independently of any response 

ratio strain

disruption in responding for reinforcement due to an overly demanding response requirement 

response rate schedule

in which reinforcement is directly contingent upon the organism's rate of response 

schedule of reinforcement

the response requirement that must be met in order to obtain reinforcement 

extinction

weakening of a behavior through the nonreinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior 

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of an extinguished response, despite the continued absence of reinforement, following a rest period after extinction 

differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)

reinforcement of any behavior other than the target behavior that is being extinguished 

stimulus control

the presence of the discriminative stimulus reliably affects the probability of the behavior (or reliably “evokes” the behavior) 

stimulus generalization

the tendency for an operant response to be emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to a discriminative stimulus (SD)  

generalization gradient

represents the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the discriminative stimulus (SD) and that vary along a continuum 

stimulus discrimination

the tendency for an operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimulus than another 

discrimination training

involves the reinforcement in the presence of one stimulus (the SD) and not another stimulus  

peak shift effect

the peak of a generalization gradient following discrimination training will shift from the SD to a stimulus that is further removed from the S-Delta 

multiple schedule

consists of two or more independent schedules presented in sequence, each resulting in reinforcement and each having a distinctive SD 

behavior contrast

occurs when a change in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces an opposite change in the rate of response on another component 

negative contrast effect

an increase in the rate of reinforcement of one component produces a decrease in the rate of response on the other component 

positive contrast effect

a decrease in rate of reinforcement on one component results in an increase in rate of response on the other component 

errorless discrimination training

a gradual training procedure that minimizes the number of errors (i.e., nonreinforced responses to the S-Delta) and reduces many of the adverse effects associated with discrimination training 

two-process theory of avoidance

processes involved in learning an avoidance response: (1) classical conditioning of a fear response to a CS, and (2) operant conditioning, in which moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear 

time-out

type of negative punishment involving the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the occurrence of a problem behavior 

response cost

type of negative punishment involving the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behavior 

intrinsic punishment

punishment that is an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished; the activity itself is punishing 

extrinsic punishment

punishment that is not an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished, but is the result of an event that follows the behavior 

primary punisher

an event that is innately punishing; things we are born to dislike (electric shock, intense heat, loud noise, etc.) 

secondary punisher

an event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher (e.g., a tone that has been paired with shock that becomes a conditioned aversive stimulus can then be used as a secondary punisher) 

generalized punisher

an event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with many other punishers 

conditioned suppression theory of punishment

theory that punishment does not weaken a behavior but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behavior 

avoidance theory of punishment

punishment actually involves a type of avoidance conditioning in which the avoidance response consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished 

premack principle of punishment

a low-probability behavior can be used to punish a high-probability behavior 

learned helplessness

a decrease in learning ability that results from repeated exposure in uncontrollable aversive events 

concurrent schedule

simultaneous presentation of two or more independent schedules, each leading to a reinforcer 

matching law

the proportion of responses emitted on a particular schedule will match the proportion of reinforcers obtained on that schedule

undermatching

the proportion of responses on the richer schedule versus the poorer schedule is less different than would be predicted by matching 

overmatching

the proportion of responses on the richer schedule versus the poorer schedule is more different than would be predicted by matching

bias from matching

one response alternative attracts a higher proportion of responses than would be predicted by matching, regardless of whether that alternative contains the richer or poorer schedule of reinforcement

melioration theory

the distribution of behavior in a choice situation shifts toward those alternatives that have higher value regardless of the long-term effect on the overall amount of reinforcement  

ainslie-rachlin model of self-control

preference between smaller sooner and larger later rewards can shift over time; the value of a reward increases more and more sharply as delay decreases and attainment of reward becomes imminent 

Commitment (precommitment) response

an action carried out at an early point in time that serves either to eliminate or greatly reduce the value of an upcoming temptation 

Small-but-cumulative effects model

each individual choice on a self-control task has only a small cumulative effect on our likelihood of obtaining the desired long-term outcome 

Observational (social) learning

the behavior of a model is witnessed by an observer and the observer’s behavior is subsequently changed 

contagious behavior

more-or-less instinctive or reflexive behavior triggered by observing the occurrence of the same behavior in another individual (e.g., yawning, orienting response) 

stimulus enhancement

process by which a person becomes more likely to approach a particular object/location because their attention has been drawn to that object/location by the behavior of another individual  

vicarious emotional response

a classically conditioned emotional response resulting from the observation of that emotional response being exhibited by others 

• Expression of fear in others can act as UCs that elicit fear in ourselves 

• Emotional reactions of others serve as CSs rather than USs: because fearful looks in others are often associated with frightening events, they become CSs that elicit fear in ourselves  

true imitation

form of observational learning involving close duplication of a novel behavior to achieve a specific goal (flirting in the same way as we have seen another woman do (different from how we would normally flirt) to enter without standing in line)

generalized imitation

generalized tendency to imitate new modeled behaviors in the absence of any specific reinforcement for doing so

rule

verbal description of a contingency (also called an instruction if it additionally indicates how we should behave)

rule-governed behavior

behavior that has been generated through exposure to rules 

 

personal rule (self-instruction)

verbal description of a contingency that we present to ourselves to influence our behavior 

say-do correspondence

close match between what we say we are going to do and what we actually do at a later time 

personal process rule

personal rule that indicates the specific process by which a task is to be accomplished (also called an implementation intention)

extinction burst

A temporary increase in the frequency and intensity of responding when extinction is first implemented

resurgence

Reappearance during extinction of other behaviors that had once been effective in obtaining reinforcement

partial reinforcement effect

Behavior maintained on an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement extinguishes more slowly than behavior maintained on a continuous schedule

anxiety conservation hypothesis

Avoidance behaviors persist because they occur too quickly for a person to experience the aversive stimulus

• Ex: someone with social anxiety might avoid going to a party, which reduces their anxiety. This outcome reinforces the avoidance behavior

functional communication training

Uses differential reinforcement to teach individuals alternative, appropriate communication skills to replace problem behaviors maintained by social reinforcers

• Used in ABA

systematic desensitization

Pairing relaxation with a hierarchy of fear-inducing stimuli, either in vivo (real-life exposure) or imaginative

flooding therapy

Prolonged exposure to the feared stimulus, either in vivo or imaginative, to allow for extinction

aversion therapy

Associating the phobic stimulus with an aversive stimulus to reduce its attractiveness