1st Semester Exam - Units 1-6

Anatomy

The study of structure

Physiology

The study of function

Homeostasis

The existence of a stable internal environment

Homeostasis regulation

Automatic adjustments in the physiological systems that preserve homeostasis

Cell

Variety of specialized cells, each doing their job

Tissue

Cells that make up the four basic tissue types

Organ

Collections of tissues doing a specific function

Organ system

Organs working together for common function

Organism

The whole body

Endocrine system

Includes the thyroid and pituitary gland

Nervous system

Includes the brain and spinal cord

Integumentary system

Functions to protect tissues and regulate temperature

Skeletal system

Includes the ligaments and bones

Muscular system

Functions in movement and posture

Urinary system

Includes the bladder and kidneys

Circulatory system

Includes the heart and blood

Digestive system

Includes the stomach and esophagus

Reproductive system

Includes the ovaries in females and the testes in males

Homeostasis

The ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite changes in the external environment

Modes of homeostatic regulation

Positive and negative feedback

Negative feedback

Response negates the stimulus

Positive feedback

Response reinforces the stimulus

Histology

The study of tissues

Epithelial tissue

Covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways and chambers, produces secretions

Connective tissue

Fills internal spaces, provides structural support, stores energy

Muscle tissue

Contracts to produce active movement

Neural tissue

Conducts electric impulses, carries information

Functions of epithelial tissue

Protection, absorption, secretion, diffusion

Epithelial cell shapes

Squamous, cuboidal, columnar

Squamous

Flattened or squashed

Cuboidal

Cube-shaped

Columnar

Column-like

Unifying features of connective tissue

Specialized cells, protein fibers, ground substance

Types of connective tissue

Connective tissue proper, fluid connective tissue, supporting connective tissue

Functions of connective tissue

Support and protection, transport of materials, storage of energy reserves, defense of the body

Integumentary system components

Cutaneous membrane, subcutaneous layer

Make-up of the cutaneous membrane

Epidermis, dermis, accessory structures

Main functions of the integument

Protection, temperature maintenance, synthesis, storage of nutrients, sensory reception, excretion and secretion

Epithelium

Part of the cutaneous membrane; stratified squamous epithelium

Stratum germinativum

Bottom-most layer of the epidermis; made up of stem cells and melanocytes

Melanin

Made by melanocytes; provides UV protection; gives brown-black color

Stratum spinosum

Spiny layer of the epidermis

Stratum granulosum

Grainy layer of the epidermis

Stratum lucidum

Clear layer of the epidermis; only in thick skin

Stratum corneum

Most superficial layer of the epidermis; made up of flattened (squamous) cells; abundant with keratin

Cerotene

Contributes orange-yellow color; provided from diet

Hemoglobin

Blood pigment; gives skin pink-ish tones

Beneficial effect of UV radiation

Activates synthesis of vitamin D3

Harmful effects of UV radiation

Sunburn, wrinkles, malignant melanoma, basal cell carcinoma

Accessory structures of the integument

Hair, nails

Hair

Protects from UV, insulates, cushions from light trauma

Nails

Protection, fine manipulation

Layers of the dermis

Papillary, reticular

Papillary layer

Under epidermis; named for dermal papillae which give rise to fingerprints; loose connective tissue

Reticular layer

Tough, dense, fibrous layer of dermis; blends into papillary layer

Sebaceous glands

Secrete oily substance called sebum

Apocrine glands

Secretes odorous sweat; absent before puberty

Merocrine glands

Secretes watery sweat; helps regulate temperature

Four stages of skin healing

1. Inflammation

2. Scab formation

3. Cell division and migration

4. Scar formation

Skeletal system

Includes bones, cartilages, joints, ligaments, and other connective tissues

Functions of the skeletal system

Support against gravity, storage of calcium phosphorus and fat, blood cell production, protection of soft internal organs, leverage for muscle action

Structure of the bone

Specialized cells (2% of weight) and strong flexible matrix made of calcium phosphate crystals (2/3 of weight) and collagen fiber

Features in a long bone

Diaphysis, ephipheses, articular cartilage, periosteum, endosteum

Diaphysis

Shaft of bone

Features of the diaphysis

Compact bone, marrow cavity

Epiphyses

Ends of bone

Material of ephiphysis

Spongy bone

Articular cartilage

Connective tissue to lubricate the joints

Periosteum

Covering of bone; outside layer

Endosteum

Lining of bone

Osteocytes

Specialized bone cells within lacunae in matrix; arranged in columns; branches enhance communication; mature bone cells between lamellae

Osteon

Basic functional unit of compact bone; columnar in shape

Central (Haversian) canal

Axial tunnel for blood vessels

Perforating canal

Radial tunnel for blood vessels

Features of Spongy Bone

No osteons; lamellae as trabeculae

Trabeculae

Arches, rods, plates of bone; branching network of bony tissue; red marrow spaces

Osteoclasts

Source of acid, enzymes for osteolysis (calcium homeostasis)

Osteoblasts

Responsible for osteogenesis; source of collagen, calcium salts

Intramembraneous ossification

Forms flat bones of skull, clavicle, mandible; stem cells differentiate to osteoblasts; produces spongy bone, then compact bone

Ossification

Process of converting other tissues to bone

Endochondral ossificaiton

Most bones formed this way; cartilage model replaced by bone; replacement begins in diaphysis and follows in epiphyses

Fracture

A crack or break in a bone

Steps in fracture repair

1. Fracture hematoma

2. Mitoses in periosteum, endosteum

3. Internal callus

4. External callus

5. Bone remodeling

2. Mitoses in periosteum, endosteum

3. Internal callus

4. External callus

5. Bone remodeling

Hematoma

Blood-clotting

Joints

Functional junctions between bones

Roles of joints

Bond parts of skeletal system; make bone growth possible; permit parts of the skeleton to change shape during childbirth; enable body to move in response to muscle contractions

Types of joints

Immovable, slightly movable, freely movable

Immovable joints

Connect bones in close proximity with a thin layer of dense connective tissue; little-to-no movement

Examples of immovable joints

Flat bones of skull, distal ends of the tibia and fibula

Slightly movable joints

Connect bones by hyaline or fibrocartilage; some movement is allowed

Examples of slightly movable joints

Between adjacent vertebrae, pubic symphysis

Freely movable joints

Ends of bones covered in articular cartilage; joint capsule surrounds ends of bones; allows for free and easy movement

Examples of freely movable joints

Shoulders, knees, fingers

Synovial membrane

Membrane secreting synovial fluid in freely movable joints

Meniscus

Shock-absorbing cartilage pad

Bursa

Fluid-filled sac to cushion joint