PART ONE - Eisenhower - Tranquility and crisis : 1953 - 1960

What was Eisenhower’s background?

Eisenhower grew up in the Midwest - Kansas in a small town and “lived the American Dream” : he was the 3rd of 7 sons from a poor family who were also religious & conservative.

He was most well known for his military background and was even called “the best officer in the army” in the 1930s by General MacArthur.

Who was running in the 1952 presidential election?

Eisenhower & Richard Nixon = Republicans

Adali Stevenson (Truman chose to not run again) = Democrats

There was no major 3rd party like there had been in 1948’s election.

How were the Republicans/Eisenhower viewed by the public?

Eisenhower was well known & respected as the leader of allied forces on D-Day - he was popular and campaigned himself as an “uncle figure”/ peoples president as well as being a good strong pragmatic leader.

Nixon was known by the public as the prosecutor on the Alger Hiss case (1950) and so staunchly anti-Communist.

How were the Democrats viewed by the public?

Stevenson was campaigned/presented as an intellectual figure which was isolating to some of the public.

The Democrat’s reputation was spoilt/bad during this time due to the Korean War (stalemate but no victory yet) and by the “Mess in Washington” - evidence of payoffs etc for political favours. It was a small case but 9 Dems were arrested.

What was Eisenhower’s “New Look” policy?

Eisenhower’s New Look policy was his foreign policy idea etc that aimed to contain communism but with cheaper & more effective methods.

It was made up by the Joint Chiefs of Staff but as the Redford Plan.

Overall, what did Eisenhower want New Look to incorporate/accomplish?

• Eisenhower regarded negotiation with the USSR and China as a legitimate part of policy and wanted to act as a peacemaker

• Building a global web of anti-communist alliances designed to check the spread of communism

• Nuclear weapons were regarded as a weapon of first and not last resort - Massive Retaliation

• Viewed the Soviet Union as aggressively expansionist

• CIA operations on a large scale, Eisenhower regarded undercover operations as a routine instrument of foreign policy

• Fundamental purpose was to prevent the expansion of Soviet communism

• Secretary of State Dulles talked of rollback of communism

• Eisenhower endorsed the objective of liberation but

  emphasised that it would only be achieved through

  peaceful means

• Huge sums in aid sent to states resisting communist insurgency eg. South Vietnam

• After 1953 the sovereignty of North Korea was respected by the US and the status quo in Europe remained intact.

• Eisenhower placed the emphasis on nuclear weapons not conventional forces and was determined to cut conventional forces.

Who was John Foster Dulles?

• Secretary of State under Eisenhower (1953-59)

• Brother Allen was head of CIA - could explain new use of CIA by gov/president in foreign policy/at all

• Frequently disagreed with Eisenhower due to difference in views of containment (“negative, futile and immoral”) – talked in the election campaign about “rolling back” the frontiers of Communism

  • this means that not all of Eisenhower’s foreign policy was exactly what he wanted to do

• But still had a strong influence on Eisenhower’s foreign policy

• Saw the fight against Communism as good v evil

• Talked about “massive retaliation”

Which of Eisenhower’s New Look policies/ aims were most similar to Truman’s foreign policy?

• Viewed the Soviet Union as aggressively expansionist

• Fundamental purpose was to prevent the expansion of Soviet communism

• Huge sums in aid sent to states resisting communist insurgency eg. South Vietnam

• After 1953 the sovereignty of North Korea was respected by the US and the status quo in Europe remained intact.

Which of Eisenhower’s New Look policies/ aims were most different to Truman’s foreign policy?

• Eisenhower regarded negotiation with the USSR and China as a legitimate part of policy and wanted to act as a peacemaker

• Nuclear weapons were regarded as a weapon of first and not last resort - Massive Retaliation

• CIA operations on a large scale, Eisenhower regarded undercover operations as a routine instrument of foreign policy

• Secretary of State Dulles talked of rollback of communism

• Eisenhower placed the emphasis on nuclear weapons not conventional forces and was determined to cut conventional forces.

Overall, how different is Eisenhower’s New Look to Truman’s Foreign Policy?

Overall they both have the same views of the Soviets being an aggressively expansionist force which requires containment through supporting countries which are being threatened by Communism mainly by giving financial aid.

However, Eisenhower aims to carry this out in some significantly different ways mainly in the use of the CIA & Massive Retaliation, he also places more focus on diplomacy with other countries & alliances. His Sec of State wants rollback but Eisenhower is more hesitant so it isn’t a major difference.

How did Stalin’s death impact the difference between Eisenhower’s New Look & Truman’s Foreign Policy?

Stalin died in March 1953

Following this, the Soviets created a joint leadership – Malenkov, Molotov, Beria and Khrushchev

The Americans were optimistic that this could lead to better relations with the USSR especially after Khrushkhev’s 1956 speech denouncing Stalin as a criminal & the process of destalinisation that occurred after.

Malenkov, and then Khrushchev, talked about “peaceful co-existence” with the West which did come to fruition with the ending of Austria’s occupation for example.

What were the summits that took place under Eisenhower?

• 1955 - Geneva - 4 power meeting

• 1959 - Camp David (Khrushchev comes to USA)

• May 1960 - Paris Summit

Why does Eisenhower push for arms race agreements?

He wants to oppose the Soviets without the risk of WW3 so he wants to reach agreements with them that would limit the arms race & reduce tensions + part of peaceful coexistence.

Pushing for agreements also gave Eisenhower good propaganda even if very few of the agreements actually happened/ never intended to happen.

What were some of Eisenhower’s efforts for Arms Race agreements?

• Atoms for Peace - Dec 1952 - proposal to share uranium with a UN agency so it could be used to generate electricity - idea was initially warmly received but was never fully achieved

  • But International Atomic Energy Agency was formed in 1957 to promote peaceful uses of the atom

• 1955 Geneva - Open Skies proposal - USA & USSR should share intelligence about others forces & allow verification via surveillance flights - obviously rejected by USSR

  • But Khrushchev gave smaller gestures e.g. agreed with the principal of nuclear disarmament

• After Khrushchev’s visit to the USA there was a planned meeting in May 1960 where they would talk about disarmament

What happened in the Hungarian Uprising?

Encouraged by successful riots in Poland in summer 1956 the people of Hungary began an even more far-reaching uprising against their Soviet- imposed government on 22 October 1956.

Hungarians renounced their membership of the Warsaw Pact, which allied Eastern European countries with Russia.

On 4 November, Khrushchev sent 200,000 soldiers and 4,000 tanks into Hungary, crushing the rebellion and killing up to 40,000 Hungarians in the process.

What did Eisenhower do in response to the Hungarian Uprising - 1956?

The world was stunned by this brutal demonstration of force, but Eisenhower did nothing as he knew he couldn’t do anything to help Hungary without risking a Soviet retaliation & WW3.

Eisenhower condemned the Soviet invasion but did nothing more leading to criticism/ disappointment from the Hungarian people.

Why were the U2 spy planes in use by the USA?

Eisenhower retained a deep distrust of the Soviets and wanted to monitor USSR military technology to make sure the USA was still ahead.

The spy planes had started in 1956 & secretly photographed Soviet military installations from very high up.

Why were the U2 spy planes still in use before the Paris Summit?

Eisenhower suspended the spy flights as the 1960 Paris summit meeting approached but he was encouraged by his advisors to do a few more flights & initially resisted but finally agreed.

What happened in the U2 spy plane crisis?

• The Soviets finally manage to shoot down a U2 spy plane on May 1st 1960

• Assuming the pilot, Francis Gary Powers, had died in the crash or committed suicide, US authorities publicly denied that there had been any spy mission or shootdown.

• Khrushchev, seeing an opportunity to humiliate the United States before the international public, then revealed that Powers had in fact survived and confessed

• 2 weeks later at the Paris Summit Khrushchev demands an apology from Eisenhower for the plane & to stop spying

• Eisenhower agrees to call off the spy planes but refuses to aplogise leading Khrushchev to storm out of the summit ending it

What was the situation in Berlin under Eisenhower?

The western powers, as well as West Germany, continued to refuse to recognise the new East German gov that had been after the Berlin Blockade. They would only deal with the Soviets over Berlin.

This and the fact that West Berlin was being used as a capitalist listening post inside the Iron Curtain angered the Soviets.

What did Khrushchev do in November 1958 (Berlin)?

Khrushchev issued an ultimatum to the Western powers to withdraw from Berlin within 6 months and make it a free, demilitarized city or else the USSR would turn over control of all lines of communication with W.Berlin to E.Germany,so the Western powers would only have access to W. Berlin when E.Germany permitted it.

This would also force them to recognise E. Germany as a country.

What did Eisenhower do in response to Khrushchev’s ultimatum?

Publicly, the Western powers expressed that they would remain in W. Berlin as they had the legal right to. In private they discussed how were going to ensure supplies were issued to their zones in Berlin.

Eisenhower didn’t respond and denied that there even was a Berlin crisis - he chose to wait the suituation out and see if Khrushchev would actually carry out his ultimatum.

What happened at the end of the Berlin Crisis?

Once the 6 month deadline had passed, Khrushchev did nothing.

In May 1959 the 4 countries foreign ministers instead met and while they didn’t come to any major agreements there it led to Khrushchev’s visit to the USA at Camp David and other negotiations.

What was discussed at Camp David (1959)?

There Khrushchev & Eisenhower talked about the Berlin situation and agreed that general disarmament of Berlin was a shared aim but that it should be done through negotiations.

They also agreed to talk more about it at the Paris Summit and at this point it looked like a conclusion on Berlin could be successfully reached at Paris.

What was so significant about Camp David?

Camp David was the first time the USSR’s leader had visited the USA. so it shows the success of “peaceful co-existence”.

Overall, how successful & new was New Look in Europe compared to Truman’s foreign policy?

How was Eisenhower’s response to the Berlin Crisis viewed by the public etc?

The Dems, Defense Dpt & the press accused Eisenhower of failing to take the Berlin crisis seriously enough.

Why did the Middle East become an area of interest in the Cold War?

Both the USA & USSR were interested due to it being rich in oil and the USA didn’t want communism to spread as it wanted to maintain oil supplies.

What was the USA’s general foreign policy in the Middle East?

Remain on friendly terms with the Arab states, minimise Soviet influence & maintain oil supplies to the West.

Why was there some tension between the Middle East & the USA?

• There was a nationalist movement across the Middle East and the USA was seen as an ally to the old colonial powers

• The USA has been the first country to recognise Israel in 1948 whereas none of the Arab states had done the same

What led the USA to enact containment in Iran?

1951 - The Shah of Iran appointed nationalist Mohammed Mossadeq as prime minister.

The Americans were worried about Mossadeq’s links with the Iranian Communist party after his move to nationalise the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company despite him not being a communist at all.

Mossadeq was forced into a closer relationship with the communist party after economic problems & decrease in popularity due to falling revenues from oil sales after the American boycott on Iranian oil which alerted the USA.

How did the USA plan to contain “communism” in Iran?

They planned to use the CIA in the 1st major undercover operation under Eisenhower to overthrow Mossadeq in a plan called Operation Ajax.

They continued with this plan despite Mossadeq appealing the the US for aid in July 1953.

What happened in Iran in 1953?

With the Shah’s support for the removal of Mossadeq secured Operation Ajax was meant to go ahead but initally the plan backfired.

• Mossadeq ignored the Shah dismissing him from office leading to a political crisis with the Shah fleeing. Mossadeq turned to Moscow for help

The CIA exploited the situation by orchestrating a fake communist demonstrations in Tehran to create fears of a communist takeover.

They then had massive counter demonstrations in favour of the Shah which led to 9 hours of fighting when finally Mossadeq quit office. - CIA led coup

What were the consequences of the CIA led coup in Iran?

• A new pro-American Prime Minister was put in

• This and the fact that the Shah was also pro-American meant that containment had been achieved

• US oil companies were given 40% of Iranian oil

• Iran had geopolitical importance - it shared a large border with the USSR and so an alliance gave the USA more power

• American economic & military aid was given as part of the alliance

• In the long term an Iranian-American alliance didn’t last so the positive effects were only short term

What was the Baghdad Pact?

• It was another measure to exclude Soviet influence in the Middle East

• Formed by Britain & Iraq in 1955 and Iran & Pakistan later joined

  • In 1959 it became known as CENTO

• The US didn’t join as it didn’t want to antagonise other Arab states pushing them closer to Communism but was involved as an observor

• The Americans saw the Pact as a link in the chain of anti-Communist alliances and so part of containment but in a global scale

How did Eisenhower become involved with Egypt & Nasser?

Nasser wanted to modernise Egypt by constructing the Aswan Dam on the River Nile and wanted to play the USA & USSR against each other to gain aid from both.

He succeeded in this as in 1955 he gained an arms shipment from the Soviet bloc which led the US to promise financial & technical aid to build the Aswan Dam.

However this was canceled in July 1956 after Egypt recognised the PRC which led Nasser to nationalise the Suez Canal to regain the funds for the dam.

What led to the Suez Crisis after the nationalisation of the Suez Canal?

Nationalisation of the Suez Canal brought Anglo-Egyptian relations to the verge of breakdown with France siding with Britain as they resented the loss of their investments & wanted to ensure continued access.

Britain sought US military aid but Eisenhower said this would antagonise the American people & that Nasser was within his rights and proposed an international agreement governing use of the Canal.

Britian, France & Israel were however secretly preparing their own military operation to regain the Suez Canal.

What happened in the Suez Crisis?

• In Oct 1956 Israel invaded the Sinai desert

• In November the British & French moved into safeguard the Suez Canal

• The USSR responded to this by calling the 3 aggressors and threatened to intervene militarily at the same time they went the USA to discuss a joint military operation

• Eisenhower rejected this as he couldn’t side against American allies & both superpowers becoming involved risked WW3

• They instead condemned the operation going against British expectations and sponsored a resolution for immediate ceasefire in the UN supported by the USSR

• Under severe diplomatic pressure by the USA & some financial pressure, the forces withdrew

Why did Eisenhower not support allies France & Britain in the Suez Crisis?

• Eisenhower wanted to maintain good relations with the Arab nations for their oil & their friendship against the communist bloc

• Doing so would alienate the world’s Muslims

• They wanted to avoid association with the imperialistic behaviour of France & Britain as it would push Third World countries to ally with the USSR

• Eisenhower - “nothing justifies double crossing us” - wanted to teach the 3 to never act without keeping him informed

• He wanted to keep the Soviets out of the Middle East by warning Khrushchev to not station troop there & turning down a joint operation

What were the consequences of the Suez Crisis?

• A Soviet-Egyptian alliance emerged in the aftermath as the actions of France & Britain pushed Nasser away from the Western powers

• Eisenhower remained hostile to Nasser and there’s even an unsuccessful CIA operation to overthrow Nasser in 1957

• Nasser’s ties to the USSR created new fears about Soviet influence in the Middle East leading to the Jan 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine

• Nasser gained support in other Arab nations after Suez leading to pro-Nasser demonstrations in some countries

What was the Eisenhower Doctrine?

• January 5, 1957, within a "Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East“

• Asserting that the US would help any country in the Middle East that requested help in resisting armed aggression

• Unlike Truman in his 1947 Truman Doctrine, Eisenhower specifically mentioned the Communist threat

• Congress passed a resolution granting the President powers to send economic & military aid to any Middle Eastern state seeking assistance “overt aggression from any nation controlled by communism”

Why did Eisenhower think the Middle East was increasingly unstable by 1958?

• Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan & Lebanon were buying military equipment from the US

• the USSR was supplying arms to Syria & Egypt

• France was supplying Israel

• Nasser was arousing Arab nationalism

• Arab nationalism was one of the reasons for the July 1958 overthrow of the pro-Western Iraqi monarchy

• Lebanon feared the instability & appealed for American aid

What did Eisenhower do about the situation in Lebanon?

In response to their appeal he sent the US army to Lebanon - the only time he sent the US army to another country in his entire presidency.

The troops never fired a shot and exited within a month the Lebenese regime felt secure and Nasser adopted a lower profile.

Why did Eisenhower send aid to Lebanon despite there not being a direct Communist threat in the country?

• it was requested by the Lebanese leader

• wouldn’t have lead to a Soviet-American clash

• disproved Dem accusations that New Look was inflexible

• showed Eisenhower wasn’t too old & weak to respond to threats

• displayed American strength & determination that served as a warning - Nasser etc & reassurance to allies - Saudi Arabia etc

Why did new areas become important in the Cold War during Eisenhower’s presidency?

New areas - the Middle East & Latin America - and areas in Asia gained more/a focus at all in the Cold War as many countries were newly independent from Western empires and so were new possible allies etc for the USSR & USA.

This led to a furthering of tensions due to opposing ideologies as Capitalism & Communism competed between the newly formed countries to be its new ideology & so ally or rival.

Communism often appealed more to the nationalist feelings in countries still under colonialism etc which pushed the USA to enact containment in these areas even more.

What was the background between the US & Latin America up to the 1950s?

• Cuba became an American protectorate after the Spanish American War - 1860s

• Early 1900s - use of Dollar Diplomacy in Latin America from US in order to control the economies of some countries in the region. This extended to gunboat diplomacy in some areas

• This creates resentment in Latin America to the USA so FDR passes the Good Neighbour Act in the 1930s to loosen some American influence - ending of USA’s direct control over Cuba

• American private investment in L.America triples in the 1920s

  • E.g. Cuba - US companies accounted for 2/3rds ish of sugar production, Venezuela - around half of the country’s oil is produced by American firms

• Latin America becomes increasingly reliant on US for investment & markets & US benefits heavily off of this

• 1947 - Truman negotiated the Rio Pact which stated that an attack on any one country in the Americas would be treated as an attack on all

What is the situation in Guatemala in 1953?

Guatemala is a very poor country in which 50% of the population lived off of only 3% of the land.

President Arbenz Guzman elected in 1951 combated this by seizing unused land owned by the (American) United Fruit Company as land reform was a priority for him.

Why does the USA become involved in Guatemala in 1954?

They’re already suspicious but Eisenhower etc view the land reform as a prelude to a communist reform programme (seems too socialist to them) despite Arbenz Guzman not being Communist at all.

McCarthyism is at its height during this time.

What is the US plan to deal with Arbenz & Guatemala?

Despite Arbenz not being a Communist or receiving aid from Moscow, Eisenhower authorises a CIA plan to overthrow him - Operation PB Success.

A staunch anti-communist Castillo Armas leads the plan & is supplied with funds etc & a base neighbouring Honduras.

Arbenz now attempts to strengthen his position by buying arms from the Soviet bloc - further “proof” to the USA.

What happened in Guatemala in 1954?

Armas invaded Guatemala with 150 men in June 1954 & crucially is given 2 planes authorised by Eisenhower.

They use these planes to bomb civilian targets which causes a collapse in popular support for Arbenz.

Arbenz flees and Armas becomes president/ dictator of Guatemala and orders a massacre of his political opponents.

Why is Castro becoming the leader of Cuba so significant to the US?

Cuba is important geographically - only 90 miles from US mainland.

Since 1934, Cuba had been ruled by American sponsored American dictator Batista who had allowed for a heavy American influence in the Cuban economy - most of Cuba’s assets were owned by US companies

Castro is the leader of the 1956 revolution in Cuba and becomes the leader of Cuba - overthrowing Batista - on New Years Day 1959.

How does the American view of Castro change?

Castro like Arbenz quickly started a land redistribution programme once he became Cuba’s leader but was received positively by Nixon when they met on a visit to the US. Nixon even said Castro wasn’t an outright Communist.

This positive opinion changed after Castro confiscated US assets in Cuba ,recognises the PRC and signed some trade agreements with the USSR.

What does Eisenhower do in response to Castro’s trade agreements with the USSR?

Traditionally America had bought Cuba’s sugar crop but with the agreements the USSR now opened its market to Cuban sugar.

Eisenhower responded with an embargo on Cuban sugar imports & instructed the CIA to prepare for an invasion of Cuba.

Castro continues to seize US assets leading to nearly all US trade being blocked by 1961 forcing more reliance on the USSR.

In Jan 1961 the 2 countries broke off diplomatic relations.

How did Eisenhower manage to end the Korean War?

While the South Korean leader, Dulles & Nixon urged Eisenhower to switch to going on the defensive Eisenhower was anxious about the loss of American, lives resources & prestige so pushed to exit the war.

Eisenhower flew to Korea after his Nov 1952 election and pressed China to peace in Korea by hinting at the use of nuclear weapons and China signed the armistice.

Why did Eisenhower continue to prioritise Indochina in foreign policy?

Eisenhower believed in Domino Theory that if Vietnam/Indochina fell to Communism the countries surrounding it would also eventually fall to Communism.

This was bad not just on an ideological scale because S.E.Asia was an important location for US military bases, a supplier of raw materials & a marketplace for Japanese goods so was considered vital to the US.

Eisenhower also believed that Ho Chi Minh - leader of Vietminh was a Moscow-trained communist.

What sort of assistance did Eisenhower give to the French against (Communist) Indochina?

Economic aid - 4 billion dollars.

Why did the US not provide France military aid in Indochina - 1954?

1954 - French forces are in a major battle against Vietminh & look as though they are to lose

At the time there are discussions of using nuclear weapons which Eisenhower though would be ineffective in this situation and of deploying American troops.

Eisenhower would have agreed to do this but only if Congress approved and the British would participate. Congress & Britian weren’t interested so Eisenhower rejected the option of military intervention.

When did France lose Indochina?

May 1954 after their defeat at Dien Bien Phu - marked the end of French empire & involvement in Indochina.

What happened after the French defeat in Indochina?

The French & Vietminh opened negotiations in the presence of America & China and concluded the Geneva Accords in 1954.

What was agreed in the Geneva Accords?

Geneva Accords - 1954

• Formally ended hostilities between French & Vietminh

• Temporarily divided Vietnam along 17th parallel into Communist North Vietnam & non-Communist South Vietman

• Provisions are made for national democratic elections to unify the country within 2 years

• US doesn’t sign the Geneva Accords but promises to not break the agreements

What is the US response to the Geneva Accords?

They plan to build up S.Vietnam as a stable non-Communist state able to resist incursion form the North & develop it into a second South Korea.

What is SEATO?

SEATO is a the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation modeled on NATO established in Sept 1954.

It members were the US, France, UK, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand & Pakistan

Its purpose was to prevent Communist interference in S.Vietnam, Laos & Cambodia.

How significant was SEATO?

It wasn’t very significant at all because India & Indonesia 2 of the major countries in S.E Asia weren’t members and there were unclear definitions on when the SEATO members would use military force against an aggressor.

But it did still form anti-Communist American allies in S.E. Asia and show commitment to containment in Asia.

Who was Ngo Dinh Diem?

He was the American installed S.Vietnamese president who replaced the French-backed candidate.

He would go on to lead S.Vietnam from 1955 - 1963 when he was assassinated.

Why was it possible a mistake that the US made Ngo Dinh Diem the S.Vietnamese president?

Some Americans thought that he wouldn’t be able to garner support from the S.Vietnamese people as he had collaborated with Japan in WW2 and was a Roman Catholic in a 90% Buddhist country - and so didn’t exactly reflect the peoples beliefs etc.

Why was the significance of the opening of an American military mission in S.Vietnam in 1954?

The military mission was designed to advise the S.Vietnamese against Communist infiltration from the North.

It was so significant because it begins the USA’s long military commitment to defending S.Vietnam & so become the foundation of the Vietnamese War.

What happened in 1956 in Vietnam?

As it was 2 years after the Geneva Accords S.Vietnam was meant to go through democratic elections.

However this did not happen as Ho Chi Minh was predicted to win 80% of the vote so Eisenhower canceled the elections on the grounds that Ho would have won & overseen the creation of a united Communist Vietnam.

How were Eisenhower’s actions in the 1956 S.Vietnamese election viewed?

It made him and the US look very contradictory as they had just stopped a fair Democratic election from taking place despite taking pride in being a democratic capitalist country.

Who were the Vietcong?

Small units of Communists in S.Vietnam who formed themselves into military units mainly in the late 1950s.

They conducted guerilla warfare against Diem’s government and in 1960 they formed a political arm - the National Liberation Front.

They were supported by segments of the local population and by North Vietnam.

What was Ho Chi Minh’s long term aim and how might have the Americans have misread this?

In 1959, he publicly affirmed that his & North Vietnam’s aim was to unite Vietnam by whatever means possible and that guerilla warfare in the South was part of his longer-term project of re-unification

The US may have misread this as a commitment to an invasion of non-Communist S.Vietnam.

Why was the US also concerned about Laos?

• In 1959 a pro-Western government backed by the CIA was formed and was encountering opposition from Pathet Lao

• Pathet Lao = an indigenous Communist group

• There was also evidence that Laos was being used as a conduit for N.Vietnamese supplies by the Vietcong

Why did Quemoy & Matsu become key issues in the Sino-American relationship?

• After the defeat of the nationalists in 1949,Chiang Hai Shek and the other nationalists led to Taiwan/Formuosa

• The US refuses to recognise the PRC and Chiang’s gov in Taiwan keeps the Chinese seat in the UN Security Council

• However, US refuses to offer any formal assistance to Chiang as they feared he would attack the PRC/mainland and want to use American soldiers for it

• The tiny islands of Quemoy and Matsu were garrisoned by Chiang’s forces – Chinag viewed them as a potential platform for a military invasion against mainland China

• They were therefore a hot spot in relations between the PRC and the Nationalist Chinese government in Taiwan

What happens in the First Taiwan Straits Crisis?

• Chiang Hai Shek announced a holy war against Communism and promises an imminent attack

• In response, China/PRC threatened to invade Taiwan and then carry out bombing of Quemoy & Matsu

• This pushes the US to support Taiwan/Chiang

• A mutual defence pact between the US & Chiang is made and is agreed that US would defend Taiwan against aggression in return for Chiang secretly agreeing that any mainland invasion must be subject to US approval

• This lessened the likelihood of a major Taiwan vs PRC conflict & deescalates the situation

What happened in 1955 after the First Taiwan Strait Crisis?

• The PRC attacked the Tachen islands which are nearby to Quemoy & Matsu

• Jan 1955 - Congress passes the Formuosa Resolution

  • This allows Eisenhower to take whatever military action he thought necessary to defend Taiwan

• Eisenhower then announces any move by the PRC against Taiwan would be met by the use of nukes against mainland China

• The Chinese premier then says China would only free Taiwan by peaceful means - massive retaliation works

• Sept 1955 - Chinese & American officials began talks in Geneva on how to avoid future conflicts

What happened in the 1958 Taiwan Straits Crisis?

• Bombing of Quemoy & Matsu renewed while US attention is on Lebanon

• Dulles stated that the US viewed this as the first stages of an attack on Taiwan - Formuosa resolution starts

• US forces stationed already in Far East are put onto a war footing

• Veiled threat of use of nukes against China issued again

• However US also offers China the chance to negotiate and China accepts

• Skirmishes in the Taiwan Strait end from this point

What was the consequence of the 1958 Taiwan Straits Crisis on the Taiwan- America relationship?

Dulles discussed the issue/crisis with Chiang and persuades him to reduce the nationalist presence in the area and further reiterated that the US could not support a mainland invasion.

Why were the US willing to take a firm stance in China/Taiwan in terms of foreign policy but not elsewhere e.g. Europe?

• Want to show the world that they would take a firm stance

• Taiwan was valuable to them as an important outpost on the Asian perimeter - they don’t want to lose it

• After the loss of China, the American public & Congress demanded a tough posture towards China so the Reps want to show that they’re not soft on China

• Dulles wants to see whether of not the PRC & USSR are close enough for the USSR to support the PRC and potentially create cracks in the Sino-Soviet alliance

  • Mao was indeed disappointed that the Soviets weren’t more supportive over the issue of Quemoy & Matsu

How does the escalation of the arms race effect the American people?

The USSR’s improvements in the Arms Race through out Eisenhower’s presidency ended teh invulnerability of the US to attack.

This created worry in the American people about mainly on the effects of a nuclear blast & less so the explosion itself.

Public concern grew as a series of test were conducted in the Pacific & at home e.g. in Nevada.