Marxism

What does Marxism have in common with Functionalism?

They share the view that society is a structure or system that shapes individuals’ bvr and ideas.

What are the two ways Marxism differs from functionalism?

1)Conflict of interests- Marxists reject the functionalist view that the social structure is a harmonious one based on value consensus. Instead, they see it as based on a conflict of economic interests between social classes of unequal power and wealth.

2)Instability and change- Marxists also reject functionalism’s view of society as stable, and stress the possibility of sudden, profound and revolutionary change. Stability is merely the result of the dominant class being able to impose their will on society.

Marx’s idea

Marxism is based on the ideas put forward by Karl Marx. Like Durkheim, Marx saw both the harm caused by the modern industrial society that was taking shape in 19th century Europe, and the promise of progress to a better world that it held. Like Durkheim, Marx believed that it was possible to understand society scientifically.

Unlike functionalists Marx did not see progress as smooth and gradual evolution. Instead, he saw historical change as a contradictory process in which capitalism would increase human misery before giving way to a classes communist society on which human beings would be free to fulfil their potential.

1. Historical materialism

Materialism is the view that humans are beings with material needs, such as food, clothing and shelter, and must therefore work to meet them. In doing so, they use the means of production.

In the earliest stage of human history, these forces are just unaided human labour, but over time people develop tools, machines and so on to assist in production. In working to meet their needs. Humans also cooperate with one another: they enter into social relations of production-ways of organising the production.

Over time the means of production grows and developed and so did the social relations of production, this is when the division of labour develops  and this is what splits us into the two classes, the class who owns the means of production and the class of labourers.

We currently live in a capatilist society  and the mode of production forms the economic base of society. This economic base shapes and determines all other features of society.

2.Class society and explotation

In the earliest stage of human history , there are no classes, no private ownership and no exploitation. Marx describes this early classless society as ‘primitive communism’. But as the forces of production grow, different types of class society come and go.

In class societies, one class owns the means of production. This enables them to exploit the labour of others for their own benefit. In particualr, they can control societys surplus product. This is the difference between what the labourers actually produce and what is needed to keep them simply alive and working.

2. What are the three successive class societies Marx identifies? 

Ancient society- Based on the exploitation of slaves legally tied to their owner

Feudal society- Based on the exploitation of serfs legally tied to the land

Capitalist society- Based on the exploitation of free wage labourers.

3. Capitalism

Capitalism is based on a division between a class of owners, the bourgeoisie and a class of labourers, the proletariat . Capatilism has three distinctive features.  

What are the three distinctive features of a capatilist society?

Firstly, unlike slaves or serfs, the proletariat are legally free and separated from the means of production. Because they do not own the means of production, they have to sell their labour power to the bourgeoisie in return for wages to help them survive. However, this is not an equal exchange. The proletariat do not receive the value of goods that their labour produces, but just enough to keep them alive.

Secondly through competition between capitalists, ownership of the means of production becomes concentrated in fewer and fewer hands. This competition drives small independent producers into the ranks of proletariat. Competition also forces capitalists to pay the lowest wages possible causing the immiseration of the proletariat.

Thirdly, capitalism continually expands the forces of production in its pursuit of profit. Production becomes concentrated in even larger units. Meanwhile, technological advances deskill the workforce. Concentration of ownership and deskilling of the proletariat together produce class polarisation. That is, society divides into a minority capitalist class and majority are the working class.

4.Class consciousness

According to Marx, capitalism sows the seeds of its own destruction. For example by polarising the classes, bringing the proletariat together in even larger numbers, and driving down their wages, capitalsim creates conditions under which the working class can develop a consciousness of its own economic and political intrests in opposition to those of its exploiters.

As a result the proleteriat are no longer under false class consciousness and are now aware they need to overthrow capitalism.

5. Ideology 

For Marx, the class that owns the means of production also owns and controls the means of mental production-the production of ideas. The dominate ideas in society are therefore the ideas of the economically class. The institution that produce and spread ideas, such as religion, education and the media all serve the domiant class by producing idelogies- set of ideas and beliefs that legitimise the existing social order as desirable and inevitable.

Ideology fosters a false consciousness in the subordiante classes and helps to sustain class inequality. However as capitalism impoverishes the workers they develop class consciousness- they see through the capitalist ideology and become consciouss and see their true position.

6. Allienation

Marx believes that our true nature is based on our capacity to create things to meet our needs. Alienation is the result of our loss of control over our labour and its products and therefore our separation from our true nature.

Alienation exists in all class societies, because the owners control the production process for their own needs. However, under capitalism alienation reaches its peak for 2 reasons.

What are the two reasons for alienation?

1) Workers are completely seperated from and have no control over the forces of production

2) The division of labour is at its most intense and detailed: the worker is reduced to an unskilled labourer mindlessly repeating a meaningless task. 

The state, revolution and communism

Marx defines the state as ‘armed bodies of men’- the army, police, prisons, courts and so on. The states exists to protect the interests of the class of owners who control it. As such, they form the ruling class.They use the state as a weapon in the class struggle, to protect their property, supress opposition and prevent revolution. Any class that wishes to lead a revolution and become the economically dominant class must over throw the existing ruling class.

Previous revolutions had always been one minority class overthrowing another.

When the working class over throw the upper class it will:

- Abolish the stateand create a classless communist society.

-Abloish explotation, replace private ownership with social ownership.

-End alienation as humans regain control of their labour and its products.  

what are the criticisms of Marx?

-Marx view of class

-Economic determinism

Marx view of class

-Marx has a simplistic, one dimensional view of inequality, he sees class as the only important division. Weber argues that status and power differences can also be important sources of inequality.

-Marx’s two class model is also simplistic. For example, Weber sub divides the proletariat into skilled and unskilled classes, and includes a white-collar middle class of office of workers and a petty bourgeoise.

-Class polarisation has not occurred, instead of the middle class being swallowed up by an expanding proleteriat, it has grown while the industrial working class has shrunk at least in Western societies. On the other hand the proleteriat in countries such as china and India is growing as a result of globalisation.

Economic determinism

Marx’s base superstructure model is criticised for economic determinism- the view that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society , including social change. Critics argue that this fails to recognise that humans have free will and can bring change through their conscious actions.

-Similarly, the base- superstructure model neglects the role of ideas. For example Weber argues that it was the emergence of a new set of ideas, those of Calvinistic Protestantism , which helped bring modern capatilism into ng.

-A related criticm is that Marx idea of a revolution has not come true. Marx predicted that revolution would occur in the most advanced capitalist countries such as Western Europe and North America. However it is only economically backward countries such as russia that has seen Marxist-led revolution.

The ‘two marxisms’

since Marx’s death in 1883, the absence of revolution in the west has led many marxists to reject the economic determinism of the base-superstructure model. Instead, they have tried to explain why capitalism has persisted and how it might be overthrown.  We can identify two broad approaches to these questions, whichh Alvin Gouldner describes as:

-Humanistic or critical marxists- this has some similarilties with action theories and interpretive sociology.

-Scientific or structuralist marxism- as it name indicates, this is a structural approach and has similarities with positivists sociology.

Give an example of a humanistic Marxism

Antonio Gramsci

What does Antonio Gramsci put forward?

He introduces the concept of hegemony, or ideological and moral leadership of society, to explain how the ruling class maintains its position. He argues that the proletariat must develop its own ‘counter-hegemony’ to win leadership.

How does Gramsci believe change will happen?

He rejects economic determinism as an explanation of change: he does not believe that the transition from capitalism to communism will never come about about simply as a result of economic forces. He believes factors such as falling wages and mass unemployment may create preconditions for a revolution but will not start it. He believes ideas play a central role in determing if change happens.

What are the two ways in which the ruling class maintains its dominance according to Gramsci

Coercion- Uses the army, police, prisons and courts of the capitalist state to force other classes to accept its rules

Consent(hegemony)-It uses ideas and values to persuade the lower classes that its rules is legitimate.

Hegemony and revolution

In advanced capitalist socities, the ruling class rely heavily on consent to maintain their rule. Gramsci agrees with Marx that they are able to do this due their control over institutions that produce and spread ideas. So as long as the rest of society accepts ruling class hegemony there will not be a revolution.

Why is the ruling class hegemony never fully complete?

1) the ruling class are a minority- to rule they need to create a power bloc by making alliances with other groups, such as the middle class. They therefore must make ideological compromises to take account of the interests of their allies.

2) The proletariat have a dual consciousness- Their ideas are influenced by not only the bourgois ideology but also by their material conditions of life. This means they can see through the dominant ideology to some degree.

This shows why there is always a possibility of ruling class hegemony being undermined, particularly at times of economic crisis.

Whats the only way a revolution can happen?

A revolution can only happen if the proletariat are able to construct a counter-hegemonic bloc- offer moral and ideological leadership to society.

Gramsci believes the working class can only win this battle by producing their own ‘organic intellectuals’

This counter hegemony would win ideological leadership as their new vision would be based on socialism and equality rather than capitilism and oppression.

What are organic intellectuals?

A body of class conscious workers, organised into a revolutionary political party who are able to formulate an alternative vision of how society could be.

Evaluation of Gramsci

Over emphasising the role of ideas and underemphasising the role of both state coercion and economic factors. Eg workers may see through ruling class ideology and wish to overthrow capitalism but be reluctant to try because of fear of state repression or unemployment. They may tolerate capitalism simply because they feel they have no choice not because they agree with the moral leadership of the upper class.

-Sociologist working with marxist framework also believe the role of ideas and consciousness as the basis for resisting domination and changing society. Eg paul willis describes the working class lads as ‘partially penetrating’ bourgeois ideology, seeing through the schools ideology to recognise that meritocracy is a myth.

What is a structuralist Marxist? And the most important one?

believe social structure is what shapes history and these are the proper subject of scientific enquiry.

Louis Althusser, a leading intellectual of the french communist party. His version of Marxism rejects both economic determinism and humanism.

critisms of the base- superstructure model

In marx’s original base-superstructure model, societys economic base determines its superstructure of institutions, ideologies and actions. Contradictions in the base cause changes in the superstructure and ultimatley bring about the down fall of capitalism. Althusser rejects this model in favour of a more complex one which Craib calls ‘structural determinism’

what is the structural determinism model?

this model states that capitalist society has three structures/levels

1)the economic level- all activities that that involve producing something in order to satisfy a need

2)the political level- all forms of organisations

3)the ideological level- the ways thay people see themselves and their world.

This model suggests that all factors can impact one another in comparison to the base-superstructure where the only thing that could impact anything was the economic level.

Ideological and repressive state apparatuses

The economic level dominates in capitalism, the political and ideological levels perform indispensable functions. For example if capitalism is to continue, future workers must be socialised, workers who rebel must be punished.

In Althusser model, the state preforms political and ideological functions that ensure the reproduction of capitalism. He divides the state into 2 apparatus’

-The repressive state apparatuses, these are the ‘armed bodies of men’ the army, police, prison that coerce the working class into complying with the bourgeoise.

-The ideological state apparatuses, these include the media, the education system, the family, reformist political parties.ISAs ideologically manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimate.

What are Althusser’s criticisms of humanism

For structuralist Marxists, our sense of free will, choice and creativity is an illusion. The truth is that everything about us is the product of underlying social structures. Ian Craib puts it as, society is a puppet theatre , we are merely puppets and these unseen structures are the hidden puppet masters, determining all our thoughts and actions.

Therefore Althusser dismisses humanism, including Gramsci as humanism believes that people use their creativity and free will to change society.

Althusser argues that we are not free agents and the belief that we posses free will is simply false class consciousness produced by the ideological state apparatus- Eg may believe education gives us the chance to achieve what we are capable of but this is an illusion-’myth of meritocracy’.

In reality we are merley products of social structures that determine everything about us preparing us to fit into pre-existing positions in the structure of capitalism.

Evaluation of Althusser 

He claims to oppose both humanism and determinism but he is harsher on humanism , although he rejects economic determinism he simply replaces it with a more complex structural determinism in which everything is determined by all 3 structures.

-Thompson critiques Althusser for ignoring the fact that it is the active struggles of the working class that can change society. He accuses Althusser of elitism- the belief that communist party knows what is best for the workers.