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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface
Functional MRI (fMRI)
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans
Functional MRI (fMRI)
these scans show brain function as well as structure
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
these waves are measured by electrodoes placed on the scalp
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system recieve and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Bottom-Up Processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information
Top-Down Processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another
Transduction
in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret
Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characterstics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
Absolute Threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particulat stimulus 50 percent of the time
Signal Detection Theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
Signal Detection Theory
a theory that assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
Subliminal
below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response
Difference Threshold
the minimum difference between the two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
Difference Threshold
experienced as a just noticeable difference
Weber’s Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount
Sensory Adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next
Wavelength
in electromagnetics, it can vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
Hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light
Hue
what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
Intensity
the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we percieve as brightness of loudness
Intensity
determined by the wave’s amplitude
Pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
Lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
Accommodation
in sensation and perception, the procress by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray
Rods
necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or well-lit conditions
Cones
detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
Optic Nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Blind Spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a spot where no receptor cells are located
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around the eye’s cones cluster
Trichromatic Theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors- one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue- which, when stimulatef in combination, can produce the perception of any color
Opponent-Process Theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision
Opponent-Process Theory
theory that some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red while others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Parallel Processing
the processing of all aspects of a problem simultaneously
Parallel Processing
the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions
Perceptual Constancy
perceiving objects as unchaning (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
Perceptual Adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
Audition
the sense or act of hearing
Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a give time
Pitch
a tone’s experienced highness of lowness; depending on frequency
Middle Ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containty three tiny bones thst concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’’s oval window
Hammer, Anvil, and Stirrup
the three tiny bones in the chamber of the middle ear
Cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear
Cochlea
sound waves traveling through trigger nerve impulses
Inner Ear
part of the ear containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
Conduction Hearing Loss
less common form of hearing loss
Conduction Hearing Loss
caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Cochlear Implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
Place Theory of Audition
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
Frequency Theory of Audition
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
Nociceptors
sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli
Gate-Control Theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
Gate-Control Theory
theory where the activity of pain signals travels up small nerve fibers and is quenched by larger fibers or information coming from the brain
Hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
Kinesthesia
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
Vestibular Sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
Hindbrain
contains the medulla, pons, cerebellum
Hindbrain
an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord
Consciousness
our awareness of oursevles and our environment
Cognitive Neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition, including perception, thinking, memory, and language
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
Dual Processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness
Sleep
distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Circadian Rhythm
the biological clock
Circadian Rhythm
regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
REM Sleep
rapid eye movement sleep
REM Sleep
a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur
REM Sleep
also known as paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active
Alpha Waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing someting in the absenec of an external visual stimulus
Delta Waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
a pair of cells cluster in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
in response to light, it causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings or sleepiness
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
Night Terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified
Night Terrors
unlike nightmares, it occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep and are seldom remembered
Dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind
Dream
notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities and incongruities, and for the delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it
Manifest Content
the remembered story line of a dream
Latent Content
the underlying meaning of a dream
Gustation
sense of taste
NREM Sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep
NREM Sleep
encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
Sensory Receptors
sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli
Hynagogic Sensations
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep
Sequential Processing
processing one aspect of a problem at a time
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