AP Psych 3.5-3.9

Language

• Def: A system of symbols and rules used to communicate meaning.

• Mnemonic: L = Letters + rules

• AP Example:AP Example: A child raised in an English-speaking home learns vocabulary (words), semantics (meanings), and syntax (word order), allowing them to generate sentences they have never heard before—showing language is rule-based, not just memorized.

Nonverbal Cues

• Def: Communication without words (gestures, facial expressions, tone).

• Mnemonic: NON-verbal = NOT words

AP Example: During a conversation, a speaker crosses their arms, avoids eye contact, and uses a flat tone. Even without words, the listener correctly interprets discomfort or disinterest.

Universal Language Cues

• Def: Nonverbal signals understood across cultures.

• Mnemonic: Universal = Everyone gets it

• AP Example: People from different cultures can identify fear from widened eyes and raised eyebrows, demonstrating biologically rooted facial expressions rather than learned language.

Phonemes

• Def: The smallest units of sound in a language.

• Mnemonic: PHON = phone = sound

• AP Example: Infants raised in English-speaking environments gradually lose the ability to distinguish phonemes unique to other languages, such as subtle sound differences in Mandarin.

Overgeneralization of Language Rules

• Def: Applying grammar rules too broadly.

• Mnemonic: ___ = too much rule use

AP Example: After learning that past tense verbs often end in “-ed,” a child says “comed” and “runned,” showing rule learning rather than memorization.

Cooing

• Def: Early vowel-like sounds made by infants.

• Mnemonic: Coo = cute baby sounds

• AP Example: A 2-month-old produces vowel-like sounds regardless of language exposure, indicating early biological preparation for speech rather than learned behavior.

Morphemes

• Def: The smallest units of meaning.

• Mnemonic: MORE-pheme = more meaning

AP Example: A child understands that adding “-s” changes “dog” to “dogs,” showing awareness of meaning units rather than just sound.

Grammar

• Def: Rules for combining words into sentences.

• Mnemonic: Grammar = rules

AP Example: Even when hearing incorrect grammar from peers, a child maintains correct sentence structure, indicating internalized grammatical rules.

Babbling

• Def: is when babies practice talking sounds before they understand or use words.Mnemonic: Babble = “ba-ba-ba”

AP Example: An infant babbles “ba-ba” and “da-da,” and these sounds later resemble the phonemes of the language spoken in their home environment.

Semantics

• Def: Meaning of words and sentences.

• Mnemonic: Semantic = sense/meaning

AP Example: A child understands that the word “bat” can mean an animal or sports equipment depending on context, demonstrating semantic flexibility.

Syntax

• Def: Rules for word order.

• Mnemonic: Syntax = sentence structure

• AP Example: A child recognizes that “The cat chased the dog” and “The dog chased the cat” have different meanings because of word order.

One-Word Stage

• Def: Stage where children speak single words.

• Mnemonic: ONE word = whole sentence

AP Example: A toddler says “Ball!” while pointing, meaning “I want the ball,” showing that one word can represent a full idea.

Telegraphic Speech

• Def: Two-word phrases without grammar words.

• Mnemonic: Telegram = short & clipped

AP Example: A child says “Want juice” instead of “I want some juice,” using content words while omitting grammatical fillers.

Ecological Systems Theory

• Def: Development is influenced by multiple environmental systems.

• Mnemonic: Eco = environment layers

AP Example: A child’s academic success is influenced not only by parenting (microsystem) but also by school policies (exosystem) and cultural attitudes toward education (macrosystem).

Authoritarian Parenting

• Def: Strict rules, high control, low warmth.

• Mnemonic: Authority = obey

• AP Example: Parents enforce strict rules without explanation, leading the child to comply outwardly but show lower self-esteem and higher anxiety.

Separation Anxiety

• Def: Distress when caregiver leaves.

• Mnemonic: Separate = panic

AP Example: A securely attached infant becomes distressed when a caregiver leaves but is quickly comforted upon their return.

Microsystem

• Def: Immediate environments (family, school).

• Mnemonic: Micro = closest

AP Example: Daily interactions between a child and their parents directly shape emotional regulation and attachment style.

Authoritative Parenting

• Def: High warmth + high structure.

• Mnemonic: Authority + support

• AP Example: Parents set clear expectations but explain reasoning, resulting in children who are socially competent and self-reliant.

Egocentrism

• Def: Difficulty seeing others’ perspectives.

• Mnemonic: EGO = me only

AP Example: A child hides behind a thin curtain and believes others cannot see them, demonstrating inability to adopt another’s perspective.

Mesosystem

• Def: Interactions between microsystems.

• Mnemonic: Meso = middle

AP Example: A teacher communicating with parents improves a child’s academic performance, showing interaction between two microsystems.

Permissive Parenting

• Def: Warm but few rules or discipline.

• Mnemonic: Permit everything

AP Example: A child raised with few rules struggles with self-control and expects minimal consequences for behavior.

Social Clock

• Def: Cultural timeline for life events.

• Mnemonic: Clock = timing

AP Example: An individual feels pressure to marry by a certain age due to cultural expectations, even if personally unready.

Exosystem

• Def: Indirect environments affecting person.

• Mnemonic: EXO = outside influence

AP Example: A parent’s stressful work environment indirectly increases family conflict at home.

Secure Attachment

• Def: Caregiver as a safe base.

• Mnemonic: Secure = safe

AP Example: In the Strange Situation, a child explores freely, shows distress when the caregiver leaves, and is easily comforted upon return.

Emerging Adulthood

• Def: Transitional stage (18–25).

• Mnemonic: Emerging = becoming adult

AP Example: A 21-year-old changes majors and jobs while exploring identity, reflecting delayed adult responsibilities.

Macrosystem

• Def: Culture, values, laws.

• Mnemonic: Macro = big picture

AP Example: Cultural emphasis on independence influences parenting styles and child development outcomes.

Insecure Avoidant Attachment

• Def: Avoids caregiver, shows little distress.

• Mnemonic: Avoid = ignore

AP Example: A child shows little emotional response when the caregiver leaves or returns, likely due to inconsistent emotional availability.

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

• Def: Toddlers learning independence.

• Mnemonic: Auto = self

AP Example: A toddler encouraged to feed themselves develops confidence, while one criticized for mistakes develops shame.

Chronosystem

• Def: Time-based life changes.

• Mnemonic: Chrono = time

AP Example: Experiencing parental divorce during early childhood has different developmental effects than during adolescence.

Insecure Anxious Attachment

• Def: Clingy and distressed.

• Mnemonic: Anxious = cling

AP Example: A child shows contradictory behaviors—approaching then freezing—often linked to inconsistent or abusive caregiving.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Def: Forming close relationships in adulthood.

• Mnemonic: Intimate = connect

AP Example: A young adult who fails to form close relationships experiences loneliness and emotional isolation.

Psychosocial Development

• Def: is the theory that people develop through a series of stages across their entire life, and each stage is defined by a social conflict or challenge that must be resolved.

• Mnemonic: Psycho + social

AP Example: Psychosocial development is the theory that personality develops through a series of stages across the lifespan, each involving a social conflict.

Insecure Disorganized Attachment

• Def: Inconsistent, fearful behavior.

• Mnemonic: Disorganized = confused

• AP Example: A child shows contradictory behaviors—approaching then freezing—often linked to inconsistent or abusive caregiving.

Diffusion

• Def: No identity exploration or commitment.

• Mnemonic: ___ = scattered

AP Example: A teenager shows no interest in career exploration and avoids decisions about the future.

Erik Erikson

• Def: Erik Erikson proposed that people develop through psychosocial stages across life, and each stage presents a social challenge that shapes personality.

• Mnemonic: ___ = identity

AP Example: Erikson proposed that unresolved identity crises can negatively affect later stages of development.

Trust vs. Mistrust

• Def: Infants learn if world is reliable.

• Mnemonic: Trust = safe world

• AP Example: Infants whose caregivers respond consistently develop trust in their environment.

Racial/Ethnic Identity

• Def: Sense of belonging to a racial or ethnic group.

• Mnemonic: Race = roots

AP Example: Adolescents explore cultural traditions and values as part of identity formation.

Industry vs. Inferiority

• Def: Developing competence in childhood.

• Mnemonic: Industry = skills

AP Example: Positive feedback at school fosters competence; repeated failure fosters inferiority.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Def: Teens define who they are.

• Mnemonic: ID = who am I

AP Example: Adolescents experiment with beliefs, roles, and goals to develop a stable identity.

Religious Identity

• Def: Beliefs related to religion or spirituality.

• Mnemonic: Religion = beliefs

AP Example: A teen explores belief systems before committing to a faith tradition.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Def: Contributing vs. feeling unproductive.

• Mnemonic: Generate = give back

Adults mentoring younger generations experience fulfillment and purpose.

Integrity vs. Despair

• Def: Reflecting on life satisfaction.

• Mnemonic: Integrity = acceptance

• AP Example: Older adults reflect positively on life achievements rather than regret missed opportunities.

Occupational Identity

• Def: Sense of career direction.

• Mnemonic: Occ = occupation

AP Example: Career exploration leads to commitment to a profession.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

• Def: Traumatic childhood events affecting health.

• Mnemonic: ACE = harm early

AP Example: Chronic childhood neglect increases risk for stress-related illness in adulthood.

Achievement

• Def: Drive to meet goals.

• Mnemonic: Achieve = succeed

AP Example: Students with high achievement motivation persist despite academic challenges.

Familial Identity

• Def: Sense of self within family.

• Mnemonic: Family = foundation

• AP Example: Strong family bonds influence self-concept and values.

Foreclosure

• Def: Commitment without exploration.

• Mnemonic: ____ = closed early

AP Example: A teen commits to a career path chosen by parents without exploration.

Moratorium

• Def: Active exploration without commitment.

• Mnemonic: More time

• AP Example: A student actively explores beliefs before committing.

Possible Selves

• Def: Images of what we might become.

• Mnemonic: Possible = future you

• AP Example: Imagining oneself as successful motivates present behavior.

Classical Conditioning

• Def: Learning by association between stimuli.

• Mnemonic: Classic = Pavlov

AP Example: A child associates a doctor’s office with pain, leading to fear even before treatment begins.

Extinction

• Def: CR weakens when CS no longer paired.

• Mnemonic: Exit = gone

AP Example: Repeated exposure to the doctor without pain reduces fear.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

• Def: Naturally triggers response.

• Mnemonic: U = unlearned

AP Example: Loud noise naturally causes fear.

Spontaneous Recovery

• Def: Reappearance of CR after rest.

• Mnemonic: Spontaneous = sudden

AP Example: Fear briefly returns after extinction.

Taste Aversions

• Def: Avoiding foods after illness.

• Mnemonic: Taste = trauma

AP Example: Illness after eating leads to long-term avoidance.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

• Def: is a natural, automatic reaction that happens without learning when a biologically meaningful stimulus occurs.

• Mnemonic: U = unlearned reaction

AP Example: Fear in response to a loud noise is an unconditioned response because it is an automatic, unlearned reaction.

Stimulus Discrimination

• Def: Responding only to specific stimulus.

• Mnemonic: Discriminate = tell apart

AP Example: Fear only of barking dogs, not all animals.

One-Trial Conditioning

• Def: Learning after one pairing.

• Mnemonic: One = enough

AP Example: One food poisoning incident creates lasting aversion.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• Def: Learned stimulus triggering response.

• Mnemonic: C = conditioned

AP Example: Doctor’s white coat predicts pain.

Stimulus Generalization

• Def: Responding to similar stimuli.

• Mnemonic: General = similar

AP Example: Fear extends to all medical settings.

Biological Preparedness

• Def: Built-in readiness to learn associations.

• Mnemonic: Bio = survival

• AP Example: Easier fear learning for snakes than flowers.

Conditioned Response (CR)

• Def: Learned response to CS.

• Mnemonic: C = conditioned response

AP Example: Anxiety when seeing the doctor.

a learned reaction that happens when you encounter a conditioned stimulus (CS).

You were not born with it — you learned it through experience.

Habituation

• Def: Decreased response after repetition.

• Mnemonic: Habit = ignore

AP Example: Reduced reaction to repeated sirens.

Classical Conditioning in Therapy

• Def: reduces fear by slowly exposing someone to what they’re afraid of while they stay relaxed.

• Mnemonic: Systematic = Step-by-step fear

AP Example: A person with a fear of dogs first imagines a small dog while practicing deep breathing, then looks at pictures of dogs, and eventually pets a dog while staying calm.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

• Def: is something you notice, but it does NOT make you react in any specific way yet.

  Nothing emotional happens.
  Nothing automatic happens.
  Your body doesn’t care — yet.

• Mnemonic: ____ = nothing yet (at the start)

AP Example: A bell before it is paired with food is a neutral stimulus because it does not cause salivation.

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Def: CS paired with new stimulus.

• Mnemonic: Second level

• AP Example: Light paired with bell causes salivation.

Classical Conditioning of Emotions

• Def: Emotional responses learned by association.

• Mnemonic: Emotion = learned fear

• AP Example: Fear learned through association with trauma.

Operant Conditioning

• Def: Learning through consequences.

• Mnemonic: ___ = actions matter

AP Example: Studying increases due to improved grades

Primary Reinforcer

• Def: is something that feels rewarding naturally, because your body needs it to survive — you don’t have to learn to like it.

If you were born wanting it

AP Example: A baby cries and is fed milk. The feeding acts as a primary reinforcer because it naturally satisfies hunger and increases the likelihood that the baby will cry again when hungry.

Learned Helplessness

• Def: Giving up after uncontrollable events.

• Mnemonic: Helpless = stop trying

AP Example: After repeated failure, student stops trying.

Reinforcement

• Def: any consequence that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to happen again in the future. Reinforcement works by either adding something desirable or removing something unpleasant, but the key idea is that the behavior increases.

• Mnemonic: _____ = repeat

AP Example: When a teacher praises a student for raising their hand, and the student raises their hand more often in the future, the praise is a reinforcer.

Secondary Reinforcer

• Def: Learned value.

• Mnemonic: Secondary = learned

AP Example: Money reinforces work behavior.

Schedule of Reinforcement

• Def: Pattern of reinforcement delivery.

• Mnemonic: Schedule = timing

AP Example: Variable schedules increase persistence

Punishment

• Def: Decreases behavior.

• Mnemonic: ___ = reduce

AP Example: Detention decreases misbehavior.

Discrimination

• Def: Responding differently to stimuli.

• Mnemonic: Discriminate = specific

AP Example: Responding only to teacher’s voice

Continuous Reinforcement

• Def: Reinforced every time.

• Mnemonic: ____ = always

AP Example: Learning new behavior quickly

Law of Effect

• Def: Behaviors followed by rewards repeat.

• Mnemonic: Effect = consequence

AP Example: Rewarded behaviors recur

Generalization

• Def: Once you learn to react to ONE thing, you start reacting the same way to similar things. this occurs when a learned response to one specific stimulus is triggered by other, similar stimuli.

• Mnemonic: This looks close enough, so I’ll react the same way.”

AP Example: A child who was bitten by a dog later shows fear toward other dogs of similar size, demonstrating stimulus generalization.

Partial Reinforcement

• Def: Reinforced sometimes.

• Mnemonic: Partial = sometimes

AP Example: Slot machines resist extinction

Positive Reinforcement

• Def: occurs when a behavior is followed by the addition of a desirable stimulus, which increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future

• Mnemonic: = add something good → behavior increases

AP Example: Bonus increases productivity

Shaping

• Def: Reinforcing successive steps.

• Mnemonic: Shape = step-by-step

AP Example: Gradually reinforcing closer approximations

Fixed Interval

• Def: Reinforcement after set time.

• Mnemonic: Fixed time

AP Example: Studying increases near exam time

Negative Reinforcement

• Def: Removing something unpleasant.

• Mnemonic: Negative = remove

AP Example: Removing nagging increases compliance.

Instinctive Drift

• Def: Reverting to innate behaviors.

• Mnemonic: Drift = back to instinct

AP Example: Animal reverts to instinctive behavior.

Variable Interval

• Def: Reinforcement after unpredictable time.

• AP Example: Unpredictable checks maintain alertness

Positive Punishment

• Def: Adding something unpleasant.

• Mnemonic: Add pain

AP Example: Extra homework reduces talking.

Superstitious Behavior

• Def: Behavior accidentally reinforced.

• Mnemonic: Superstition = coincidence

AP Example: Coincidental reinforcement creates rituals.

Fixed Ratio

• Def: Reinforcement after set responses.

• Mnemonic: Fixed number,

• AP Example: Factory pay per uni

Negative Punishment

• Def: Removing something pleasant.

• Mnemonic: Take away

AP Example: Loss of privileges reduces behavior.

Variable Ratio

• Def: Reinforcement after unpredictable responses.

• Mnemonic: Variable number

AP Example: Gambling behavior is persistent.

Social Learning Theory

• Def: Learning by observing others.

• Mnemonic: Social = watch others

AP Example: Children imitate aggression after observing rewarded behavior

Insight Learning

• Def: If the problem is solved suddenly with an “aha” moment and no trial-and-error

• Mnemonic: Insight = “aha!”

AP Example: A chimp suddenly realizes it can stack boxes to reach a banana, demonstrating insight learning.

Observational Learning

• Def: Learning by watching others.

• Mnemonic: Observe = learn

AP Example: Learning social norms by watching peers.

Vicarious Learning

• Def: Learning from others’ consequences.

• Mnemonic: Vicarious = through others

AP Example: Avoiding punishment by observing consequences

Latent Learning

• Def: Learning without reinforcement until needed.

• Mnemonic: Latent = hidden

AP Example: Knowledge demonstrated only when rewarded

Modeling

• Def: Imitating observed behavior.

• Mnemonic: Model = copy

• AP Example: Language acquisition through imitation.

Cognitive Maps

• Def: Mental representations of spaces.

• Mnemonic: Map = mental layout

AP Example: Navigating environment efficiently after exploration