Section A: Urban issues and challenges

all from megabook

1.1 : What is the global pattern of urban change?

• Increasing % of population is living in urban areas (towns and cities)

• UN reported that in 2008 more than half population lived in urban areas for the first time.

• 54% of the world's population lives in urban areas, expected to increase to 66% by 2050. 90% of increase will be concentrated in Asia and Africa

1.2: What is urbanisation, and what are urban trends in HICs and LICs?

• Urbanisation - increase in % of a country's pop living in urban areas

• LICs - rapid urbanisation because of rural to urban migration. e.g, in Nigeria 47% live in urban areas and this is growing. South Africa it's 52%

• HICs - much slower urbanisation (or counter-urbanisation, the opposite) as it started earlier in most. E.g UK 1800s and early 1900s, Industrial Revolution led to many moving to work in factories in urban areas.

• Today, UK, 80% live in urban areas. France and Spain 77%.

• Most HICs over 60% in urban areas, most LICs % is catching up fast

1.3: Can you explain how migration (push-pull theory) and natural increase affect the rate of urbanisation?

• Push factor - reason for leaving rural area

  • Lack of employment and few opportunities

  • Tough agricultural (farming) conditions, Crop failure and shortage of food

  • Natural hazards like flooding and drought

  • Wars, Poor transport links

• Pull factor - reason for moving to urban area

  • Better facilities like piped water supply and electricity

  • Better services like hospitals, schools and entertainments

  • Better paid jobs.

  • Family links and hope for a better quality of life.

1.4: Can you describe the growing pattern of megacities?

• Population over 10 mill

• Year 2000, 17 megacities. 2025 predicted 35

• Fastest-growing are in South Asia, South East Asia and Africa. South America also has growing megacities.

  • Sao Paulo in Brazil

  • Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata in India

  • Tokyo and Osaka in Japan

  • London is predicted to be by 2025

2.1: Brazil can be considered to be a LIC and a NEE. What do these stand for?

• LIC = low income country

• NEE = newly emerging economy

• Brazil's GDP/person is $8,651, theres $12,000 threshold to be a developed country

• One of the BRICS group of countries - showing growing economic importance (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)

2.2: What is the location and importance of Rio de Janeiro?

• South-east Brazil on Atlantic Ocean coast. Grown around large natural bay - Guanabara Bay.

• National importance: Cultural capital, 50+ museums, carnival one of the biggest music and dance celebrations. Capital until 1960 (replaced by Brasilia)

• Regional importance: Migrants travel for work from Brazil and other South American countries (Argentina and Bolivia)

• International importance: 'world city' of global importance, 5 ports and 3 airports, landscape between Mt. and sea is UNESCO World Heritage Site. 30m 'Christ the Redeemer' statue on Corcovado Mt., completed in 1931 = New Seven Wonders of World. Hosted 2016 summer Olympics and 2014 FIFA World Cup

2.3: How have migration and natural increase helped cause the growth of Rio?

• Migrants arrive from Brazil and S.America for business opportunities from S.Korea and China. Skilled workers from USA and UK. Migrants are attracted from Portugal, Brazil's former colonial power (common language)

• Natural pop increase from Rio’s high BR than DR. Brazil - 17 births per 1k, and 6 deaths per 1k per year. Pop of Rio is 6.7 mill and 12.5 mill in surrounding urban area. Rio is Brazil's 2nd biggest city after Sao Paulo

2.4: Economic (money) opportunities: Can you give examples of key industries in Rio which are a stimulus for economic development?

• Rio is second most important industrial centre in Brazil after Sao Paulo

• Makes 5% of Brazil's GDP and more than 6% of Brazil's jobs.

• Key industries: Banking and finance, Tourism, Retail, Manufacturing, Steel making, Oil refining (e.g TNC Petrobras, Brazilian Petroleum Corporation, HQ in Rio), Shipping (major port city)

3.1: Shanty towns of Rio, population, location, and increase in pop?

• Shanty towns are favelas. 40% of Rio's pop live in.

• 1k favelas in wider Rio urban area. Concentrated in South Zone near main beaches but some are 40km away.

• Favela pops grow as people migrate from Amazon region (Amazonia) and drought-hit areas of north-east Brazil.

3.1: What are the social challenges in Rio's slums / squatter settlements and are there any opportunities in them?

• Rocinha - largest favela in Rio, pop is 75k but real figure may be 3x

• Several social challenges - residents live in crowded and unplanned maze of alleyways and narrow streets

• Often crime, unemployment and lack of health and education services

• Changing in some favelas - Rocinha, 90% of homes are built with brick, have electricity, water and sewage systems, and many have TVs and fridges.

• Rocinha has its own TV and radio stations

3.2: Social challenges and opportunities regarding education in Rio?

• Challenges: education compulsory 6-14. Rio, half children continue education after. Many drop out, some involve in drug trafficking. Enrolment is low as there’s shortage of schools near to where many live, and not enough teachers.

• Education opportunities: Authorities improve access by encouraging locals to volunteer to help. Also school grants (money) help poor families keep children in school. Free child care provided to enable teen parents to return to education

• charity projects to run schools and sports clubs, e.g Project Favela. Also private university in Rocinha.

3.3: Can you explain efforts to reduce unemployment in Rio?

• Unemployment rates in favelas over 20%

• Most favela dwellers work in informal economy (cash in hand, not paying any taxes), like street vendors, labourer or maid

• Solutions = Schools of Tomorrow programme, aims to improve education for youth from poorer areas. Also practical skills-based education courses available.=

4.1 : What are the social challenges and opportunities regarding health care in Rio?

• Challenges: 55% has a local family health clinic (2013 figures), Services for pregnant women and elderly are poor, especially in West Zone.

• Solutions: Some favelas, medical staff visit in homes. E.g Santa Marta favela, pop 8k on steep hillside, 13km to nearest hospital. Project where medical staff take health kits and medicines up hills into homes = infant mortality fallen and life expectancy increased

4.2: What are the social challenges and opportunities regarding water supply and sanitation in Rio? (sanitation means having clean water, washing facilities and drainage)

• Challenges: 12% Rio's pop used to not have access to running water - 37% lost through leaks and illegal access

• Solutions: 7 new water treatment plants built between 1998-2015. 300km+ of pipes laid. Now, 95% of pop has mains water supply

4.3: What are the social challenges and opportunities regarding energy resources in Rio?

• Whole city suffers frequent blackouts due to shortage of electricity. Many illegally tap into electricity network, esp in favelas, which is risky

• Solutions: 60km of new power lines, new HEP station near Rio “Simplicio”, opened 2013. It increased Rio's supply by 30%. Took 6 years to build and $2 bill. Also new nuclear power station serving the city

4.4: Can you explain efforts to reduce the challenge of crime in Rio?

• Challenges: Robbery and violent crime = great challenges. Murder, kidnapping, carjacking and armed assault are regular

• Solutions: Since 2008, "Operation Pacification" (bring peace). Pacifying Police Units (UPPs) established to reclaim favelas from drug dealers. Police have taken control of favelas including crime-ridden Complexo do Alemao.

5.1 : Can you explain environmental issues in Rio? - air pollution and traffic congestion

• Most congested city in S.America. Cars in Rio increased by 40%+ in last decade.

• Heavy traffic = build-up of exhaust fumes, Air pollution = 5k deaths/year.

• Building new roads is hard as theres steep mountains. Roads only be built on coastal lowland.

• Tunnels built to connect parts of city, e.g more modern area of Barra.

• High crime levels = many prefer cars to public transport

5.1: Can you explain how environmental issues are managed in Rio? - air pollution and traffic congestion

• Public transport improved

• Metro underground train system expanded - covers 36 miles and 41 stations.

• 'Surface Metro' bus service widened

• New toll roads to CBD to reduce congestion. Coast roads made one-way in rush hour to improve traffic flow

• 450km of cycle paths built in Rio

5.1 : Can you explain environmental issues in Rio? - Water pollution and Waste disposal

• Water pollution

  • Guanabara Bay - 55 rivers flow into it, many polluted. 200+ tonnes raw sewage pour in each day. 50+ tonnes industrial waste in each day

  • Several oil spills from Petrobras oil refinery. Pollution = commercial fishing declined by 90% in last 20yrs

• Waste disposal

  • worst waste problems in favelas - steep slopes, few proper roads = hard for waste collection trucks to access

  • waste is dumped and adds to water pollution. Piles encourages rats

5.1: Can you explain how environmental issues are managed in Rio? - Water pollution and Waste disposal

• Water pollution

  • 12 new sewage works built since 2004, $68 mill.

  • 5km new sewage pipes installed around badly polluted areas.

  • Ships fined for discharging pollutants (fuel) into bay illegally

• Waste disposal

  • New power station near Rio Uni burns methane gas from rotting rubbish

  • Consumes 30 tonnes every day and produces enough electricity for 1k homes. 'waste-to-energy'

5.2: Can you explain an example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Rio?

Favela-Bairro Project (slum to neighbourhood):

• Improvement, site and service scheme run by Rio authorities.

• They provide land and services so people build/improve homes

• Complexo do Alemao is improved (German complex) in Rio's North Zone, 26k people.

5.2: Can you explain strategies used by urban planning to improving the quality of life for the urban poor in Rio?

1. Cable car built to the commercial centre of Ipanema 3.5km away. Residents get a free return ticket daily

2. Water supply and drainage has been improved = better SANITATION (cleanliness)

3. Roads paved and formally named

4. Hillsides secured against landslides

5. New health, leisure and education facilities

6. Access to credit (loans) helps residents buy materials to improve homes

7. 100% mortgages available (no deposit) for people to buy their home

8. Pacifying Police Unit (UPP) reduces crime

5.2: Has the Favela-Bairro Project been a success?

• Pros: Quality of life improved for residents like in Complexo do Alemao. Project is recognised as a model of good practice by UN and copied across Brazil

• Cons: budget $1 bill may not cover all favelas. More schools need to improve literacy rates, more training needed to help residents get jobs. Rent prices rise in improved favelas = poorest tenants may have to leave

6.1: Can you give an overview of the distribution and population of major cities in the UK?

• London - biggest city in UK, pop 9 mill

• Birmingham often called the 'second city', pop 1mil.

• 3 other cities - pop of more than 500k (Leeds, Glasgow and Sheffield)

6.2: What is the location and importance of London in the UK and the wider world?

UK:

• UK's largest city and capital. Only UK city predicted to be megacity, 10 mill+ by 2025

Wider world:

• Major tourist draw, 30 mill tourists/year

• Heathrow Airport - 2nd busiest (after Dubai International), 79 mill pass through per year

• 4 UNESCO World Heritage Sites:

  • Tower of London

  • Maritime Greenwich

  • Kew Gardens

  • Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey, including St Margaret's Church

6.3: Can you explain the impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of London?

• Many migrate to London from in the UK for employment (national migration) - Partially why London has growing pop

• 2011 Census = info about London's pop. 45% white British, drop from 58% in 2001. 37% born outside UK (shows impact of international migration). 24% non-UK nationals.

• London - most ethnically diverse area in UK

• Cultural diversity - Notting Hill Carnival held since 1966 for 2 days every August. Celebrates Caribbean traditions and culture

6.4: Can you list examples of opportunities for people in London?

• Social, recreational, cultural, entertainment

• Economic

• Integrated (connected) transport

6.4: Can you explain examples of opportunities for people in London?

• Social, recreational, cultural, entertainment

• West End theatre district is a high level commercial theatre, e.g Lion King at Lyceum Theatre

• Art galleries - National Portrait Gallery off Trafalgar Square

• Nightlife - Shoreditch

6.4: Can you explain examples of opportunities for people in London?

• Economic

• Square Mile - major business and financial centre. Famous landmark skyscrapers like Cheesegrater, Walkie-Talkie

• 840k private sector businesses. Generates 22% UK's GDP, its economy is same size as Sweden’s or Iran’s.

• 1/3 new jobs created in UK over last decade is in London

• 1/2+ jobs in London and South East are classed as skilled professional occupations

• UK Gov said it’s committed to boosting local growth outside London

6.4: Can you explain examples of opportunities for people in London?

• Integrated (connected) transport

• The Tube - public rapid transit system in London + some adjacent counties

  • Started 1863, 11 lines, 5 million passengers a day, 272 stations and 250 miles of track. 45% is underground in tunnels

• Crossrail project (Elizabeth Line) in 2022 = improved rail transport in London. £8.8bn railway links Reading and Essex via central London

• Famous red London Buses, Santander bike hire scheme

6.5: Can you give examples of 'urban greening' in London?

• Urban greening - create parkland and open space in cities

• London - one of the greenest cities, 47% green space

• Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, opened 2014. Re-imaged formerly bad conditioned brownfield industrial land in east London.

7.1: Can you list social and economic challenges in London?

• Urban deprivation

• Inequalities in housing

• Education

• Health and life expectancy

• Unemployment

7.1: Can you explain these social and economic challenges in London?

• Urban deprivation (area of poverty)

• London Docklands - area on the Isle of Dogs. Redeveloped after decline of ship docking industry in 70s/80s

• Huge container ships = too large to sail up Thames. Closed, 13k jobs lost as area became derelict

• 80s-90s London Docklands Development Corporation redeveloped it

Projects:

• Canary Wharf business district, 24k new homes, Docklands Light Railway, London City Airport

• Nearby Greenwich Peninsula redeveloped from brownfield site to Millennium Dome and O2 Arena

7.1: Can you explain these social and economic challenges in London?

• Inequalities in housing

• House prices in capital are 14.5x earnings of average Londoner. Average house price £500k, earnings on average £34k a year = owning is impossible

7.1: Can you explain these social and economic challenges in London?

• Education

• Increasing high school amount where pupils are most likely to make good progress

• Disadvantaged students - more likely to do well than schools in N/NE England

• Harrow, Hillingdon, Brent, Ealing and Camden - boroughs with best education 'value-added' scores

• Deep inequalities stay in children attending under-performing high schools

• Meeting demand of growing student numbers is a key issue

7.1: Can you explain these social and economic challenges in London?

• Health and life expectancy

• Barking and Dagenham borough - shortest life expectancy, 77 men, 81 years women

• Kensington and Chelsea borough - longest life expectancy, 83 men, 86 years women

• Study was released as Mayor Sadiq Khan set plans to tackle disparity in health across capital, focussing on issues like air quality, obesity and alcohol

7.1: Can you explain these social and economic challenges in London?

• Unemployment

• Highest in London's more deprived boroughs

• E.g unemployment is over 7% in Tower Hamlets borough, and 6%+ in Greenwich and Southwark

7.2: Can you explain these environmental challenges in London?

• dereliction

• Dereliction: derelict area is abandoned land, often where former industries closed down.

• E.g of redeveloped derelict land in London:

  • Isle of Dogs area into Canary Wharf business district and housing area

  • Greenwich Peninsula (former gas works site) into Millennium Dome and O2 Arena

  • Stratford part next to River Lea (Newham borough) into Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, with new East Village apartments

• all on brownfield land

• Millennium Dome = rain for toilet flushing

7.2: Brownfield and greenfield site meaning?

• Brownfield sites - land built on before = preserves greenfield sites from urban development and so environmental sustainability

• Greenfield sites - untouched land

7.2: Can you explain these environmental challenges in London?

• waste disposal

• London generates lots, ends in landfill. Growing concern over plastic amount in Thames

• Feb 2018, govs Environment Secretary Michael Gove said plastic straws to be banned in Britain as they take 200+ years to decompose

• Coffee cups are a concern - save up to 50p on hot drink if you take your own reusable cup

7.3: Urban sprawl and rural-fringe definition and e.g

• Urban sprawl - Town or city spreads out

• Rural-urban fringe - town or city meets countryside

• West London area around Ruislip - e.g of London meeting rural-urban fringe

7.3: Can you explain the impact of urban sprawl on the rural-urban fringe, and the growth of commuter settlements such as Ruislip?

• Ruislip is a commuter settlement, high % travel into London with 2 tube line, 5 other. Ruislip station on Metropolitan opened 1904 = rapid growth of Ruislip as a place to live

• Ruislip Manor shopping and housing area developed in 30s

• Rural-urban fringe around Ruislip changed into dense urban landscape over last 100yrs, but still many green spaces (Ruislip Woods national nature reserve)

• Recent brownfield redevelopments, like Old Dairy which now has CineWorld, restaurants, Asda and over 150 new houses.

8.1: Why did Stratford in east London need urban regeneration?

• Stratford in Newham borough, east London = was an area of social and economic deprivation (many lived in relative poverty)

• BBC News Online 2011, London had highest child poverty rate in Britain. Newham highlighted, had high unemployment and derelict land around River Lea = some reasons why area was selected by International Olympic Committee

• hoped that 2012 Olympic Games would leave positive legacy of social, economic and environmental change

8.2: Can you list the main features of the Stratford urban regeneration project?

• Westfield Stratford City

• Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park

• East Village (previously Olympic village)

8.2: Can you explain the main features of the Stratford urban regeneration project?

• Westfield Stratford City

Westfield Stratford City:

• £1.45 bill complex, opened in 2011

• More than 300 shops, 70 restaurants, 14-screen cinema, 3 hotels, bowling alley, UK's largest casino. Created 8,500 jobs

8.2: Can you explain the main features of the Stratford urban regeneration project?

• Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park

Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park:

• opened in 2014, London's first new park for over a century

• Adventure playground, Olympic venues open to public (velodrome - cycling), aquatics centre (swimming)

• 114m high Orbit Tower

8.2: Can you explain the main features of the Stratford urban regeneration project?

• East Village

East Village (previously Olympic village):

• 3,000 apartments. Named 'development of the decade' at RESI UK conference 2016

• 10K+ new homes planned by 2030

• High rents and purchase prices of properties.

• Exclusive new apartment blocks in Stratford, (Plaza and Halo) = improvement of housing is 'gentrification'

• Future in the Carpenters Estate of council housing - to be the next redevelopment. Residents not rehoused in area at affordable price = likely to be forced to leave

9.1: What is sustainable urban living?

• Area that meets needs of people and looks after environment while using less resources to consider the needs of future gens

• Particular focus is energy conservation so fewer finite fossil fuels must be burnt in power stations

9.2: London's East Village (formerly Olympic Athlete's Village 2012): can you list aspects of sustainable urban living?

• Insulated buildings to reduce energy use

• Public transport options

• Green Space

• Waste recycling

9.2: London's East Village (formerly Olympic Athlete's Village 2012): can you explain how it shows several aspects of sustainable urban living?

• Insulated buildings to reduce energy use

• modern apartments have high standards of window and wall insulation to retain heat in winter = lowers energy consumption = less greenhouse gas emissions

9.2: London's East Village (formerly Olympic Athlete's Village 2012): can you explain how it shows several aspects of sustainable urban living?

• Public transport options

• One of best connected places in UK for public transport.

• Stratford station on Central Line, DLR line, connected to Overground, and bus services

• Stratford International station connects to Europe via HS1.

• Car parking costs extra = encourage sustainable public transport, walk or cycle rather than private car which adds to air pollution

9.2: London's East Village (formerly Olympic Athlete's Village 2012): can you explain how it shows several aspects of sustainable urban living?

• Green space

• 10 hectares of parkland with ponds and hundreds of trees

• Next to Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park

• Green space boosts wellbeing of residents, and trees absorb CO2 to slow down global warming

9.2: London's East Village (formerly Olympic Athlete's Village 2012): can you explain how it shows several aspects of sustainable urban living?

• Waste recycling

• Recycling containers for glass, plastic, tins and paper

• Residents encouraged to 'Reduce, Re-use, Recycle'

• Reduce waste you produce

• re-use plastic bags and bottles

• recycle anything you can't reuse

9.2: Sustainable electricity and hot water in East Village - process

1. Nearby is a local CHP station (combined heat and power) that generates electricity by burning biomass as fuel (sawdust or gas from waste landfill) = heat used to make hot water

2. Hot water is piped underground through East Village

3. Each apartment has a hot water connection from CHP station, apartments do not need separate boilers

4. As water cools, it returns to CHP station

9.2: Sustainable electricity and hot water in East Village - purpose of the process

• energy use 30% less than average urban area

• CHP is more efficient than traditional fossil fuel power station as it generates electricity and produces heat from same source (burning biomass)

• Only works on a local scale as hot water can only be piped a few km underground before losing heat

9.2: Sustainable Rainwater recycling in East Village - process

1. Water use is 50% less than average urban area, because rain is recycled

2. Rain drains from roofs and pavements into ponds, filtered, cleaned naturally by reed beds

3. Pumped back up into apartments, used for flushing toilets or watering plants in East Village park land. NOT for drinking water

9.3: Can you give brief details of urban sustainability projects around the world?

• Singapore, south east Asia

• city state has electronic road toll pricing on major roads to discourage car use

• quota system to reduce car owners amount

• car-sharing scheme and overhead railway system

• result is 45% less traffic than past and 2/3 of daily journeys made by public transport

• 'Gardens by the Bay' nature park containing 'Super tree Grove'

• Artificial structure is a frame to grow real plants/flowers that 'green the city'

• Aim to raise quality of life by enhancing greenery in urban environment

9.3: Can you give brief details of urban sustainability projects around the world?

• Beijing, China

• Capital city of China, 6 mill cars and some of the worst air quality

• Cars are banned from city on 1 day each week based on number plate recognition

• Air pollution might slowly improve

10.1: Can you give the main features of London's congestion charge?

• 2003 TFL, congestion charge means vehicles are charged for driving into centre of London

• £15 (£11.50 in 2020) daily charge if you drive in the zone from 7-18 Mon-Fri and 12-18 Sat-Sun and bank holidays

• Expensive = less driving into central London, more public transport, walk or cycle

• Aim to reduce congestion and air pollution and improve air quality

• London drivers pay a £12.50 ULEZ (Ultra Low Emission Zone) charge if vehicle doesn’t meet ULEZ emission standards

10.2: Can you evaluate the success of London's congestion charge in tackling congestion?

• TFL published that 5 years after, 70k less vehicles a day entered, 21% reduction

• TFL invests the money into improvements in buses and Underground

• Low-emission vehicles (electric or hybrid) are exempt from the charge, which TfL says helps reduce the air pollution problem

• Critics say air pollution remains a growing problem in London, and congestion may have increased outside the charging zone

10.3: Can you explain bike hire schemes in London? 10.4: What other transport strategies are in place in London?

• Santander Cycles (Boris Bikes), Boris Johnson was Mayor of London when scheme launched 2010

• 2016, 10.3 million hires

• Gel saddle, tyres with puncture protection, improved lighting and phone app to check availability

• £1.65 for 30 mins, unlimited use for £20 a month

• London Underground. London Buses. Crossrail.

10.5: Can you give further examples of strategies to reduce traffic congestion?

• Bus lane is a road lane only for buses = buses are quicker and more reliable = more will use them instead of private cars = less congestion or air pollution

• Park and ride - driver leaves car in big, free car park on edge of city. Regular and cheap buses to CBD (central business district) = less cars in CBD = less congestion and less air pollution