ALL SP - L9-14

Prosocial Behaviour

Behaviour intended to help someone else.

Cooperation

Two or more people working together towards a common goal that will benefit all involved.

Egoism

Behaviour motivated by the desire to obtain personal rewards.

Norm of Social Responsibility

A norm that those able to take care of themselves have a duty and obligation to assist those who cannot.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The effect of other people present on diminishing each individual’s perceived responsibility for helping; one explanation for the bystander effect.

Bystander Effect

The findings that the presence of more bystanders will decrease the likelihood of any one person giving help.

Negative-State Relief Model

The theory that most people hate to watch others suffer, so the ultimate goal of their help is not to aid the person in need for his or her sake, but to reduce the helper’s own distress.

Empathy-Altruism Model

The theory that feelings of empathic concern lead to a motive to help someone in need for his or her own sake.

Social Dilemma

A form of interdependence in which the most rewarding action for each individual will, if chosen by all individuals, produce a negative outcome for the entire group.

Trust

The expectation that others will act pro-socially during a social interaction.

Social Value Orientation

Stable differences in the ways people act in social dilemmas (such as competitive or prosocial).

Altruism

Behaviour intended to help someone else without any prospect of personal rewards for the helper.

Aggression

Behaviour intended to harm someone else.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of goals between two or more parties.

Instrumental Aggression

Aggression used as a means to an end, to control other people, or to obtain valuable resources.

Hostile Aggression

Aggression that is driven by anger due to insult, disrespect, or other threats to self-esteem or social identity.

Frustration-Aggression Theory

A theory holding that any frustration - defined as the blocking of an important goal - inevitably triggers aggression.

General Aggression Model

A theory that person and situation factors influence people’s cognition, affect, and arousal, which in turn influence interpretations of the situation and decisions about aggression.

Realistic Conflict Theory

The theory that intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce but valued material resources.

Relative Deprivation Theory

The theory that feelings of discontent arise from the belief that other individuals or other groups are better off.

Social comparison determines how satisfied or dissatisfied people are with what they have.

Vicarious Retribution

A member of your in-group was attacked, so you attack a member of an out-group (offending group) even if it wasn’t the same person who attacked.

Coalition Formation

Occurs when two or more parties pool their resources to obtain a mutual goal they probably could not achieve alone.

Reactive Devaluation

Perceiving a proposed solution to a conflict negatively simply because the out-group offers it.

Negotiation

The process by which parties in conflict communicate and influence each other to reach agreement.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that can be attained only if groups work together.

What are the different models explaining pro-social behaviour?

1. Helping Kin (Kin Selection) → An evolutionary strategy that promotes the survival of one’s genes present in relatives, even when that means a cost to the self.

2. Group Selection → Altruism beneficial at the group level - A group with altruists (people willing to sacrifice themselves for the group) has an advantage over a group with (mostly) selfish individuals.

3. Reciprocal Helping/Altruism → People also generally help genetically unrelated others. Evolutionary benefit from helping unrelated others if favour is repaid.

What are the two dimensions associated with pro-social behaviours?

1. Pro-social thoughts and feelings, such as a sense of responsibility.

2. The self-perception that one is helpful and a competent individual.

Theory of Emergency Response

But…

1. Notice something is wrong

2. Interpret situation as an emergency

3. Degree of responsibility felt

4. Form of assistance

5. Implement action of choice

Arousal: Cost-Reward Model

If arousal, there is a calculation as to whether helping would be beneficial. If so, help is given, if not, no help is given. Depends how costly it is to help!

Exception: high emotional arousal!

Two types of emotions when witnessing need for help

1. Personal Distress (anxiety, fear, alarm).

2. Empathetic Concern (compassion, sympathy).

Belief in a Just World

The idea that people get what they deserve → Good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people.

3 Bystander Influences

1. Pluralistic Ignorance

2. Diffusion of Responsibility

3. Evaluation Apprehension

3 Strategic Motives to Out-Group Helping

1. Impression Formation → Make good impression of in-group.

2. Meaning and Existence → Restore purpose to in-group after threat to group identity.

3. Power and Autonomy → Exert power over out-group.

Types of Helping

1. Dependency-Oriented → Provides full time solution and does not rely on skills of helped.

2. Autonomy-Oriented → Is limited in degree and duration to the transfer of specific tools or instructions from helper to helped.

2 Characteristics of Social Dilemmas

1. Each individual receives a higher payoff for not doing the group’s best interest.

2. All individuals are better off if they cooperate.

How to stimulate pro-social behaviour?

1. Perspective Taking → Promotes empathic concern.

2. Recategorisation (of social identity) → Bias in pro-social behaviour towards out-group members can be reduced when in-group members recategorise themselves within a superordinate group.

3 Key Dimensions of Group Processes Impacting Helping

1. Salience of social identities (student, European, etc).

2. Boundaries of social identities (who is out/in-group).

3. Content of social identities (group norms/values).

What is interpersonal vs intergroup aggression?

Intergroup Aggression: Intergroup aggression is directed toward another person because they are viewed as a member of a competing, threatening, or different out-group.

Interpersonal Aggression: Interpersonal aggression is directed from one person to another based on personal conflict.

Is aggression a necessary consequence of evolution?

Is it necessary? No.

Is it a consequence of evolution? Yes → A way to gain status and resources or even mates.

Does aggression escape like “steam from a valve” (Catharsis)?

No!

Aggression causes more aggression and anger, not less! Aggression provides no sense of relief.

What is the role of alcohol in aggressive behaviour? (What is alcohol myopia?)

Alcohol is a factor in 2/3 of murder cases.

Alcohol Myopia: Alcohol hinders the assessment of the consequence of behaviour.

Influence of alcohol on aggression is partly explain by the influence of the expectation → what people think they are drinking also predicts aggression.

Relation of aggression to frustration?

Frustration-Aggression hypothesis states that frustration commonly triggers aggression.

Relation of aggression to cost and benefit balance?

• Possibility of punishment can deter aggression.

• If violence is the only means available for obtaining a resource, then violence it is!

Relation of aggression to different types of threat?

• Physical threat/self defence

• In response to threat of self-esteem (insecure = higher probability of violence)

Relation of aggression to self-esteem & narcissism?

• Insecure = higher probability of violence

• High narcissism = strong link to aggression.

Relation of aggression to modelling & reinforcement?

• Aggression of others can be a model for one’s own behaviour (especially when strongly identifying with the model).

• Stronger effect of modelling for aggression if no aversive effects and if rewards!

Relation of aggression to norms & inter-individual differences?

• Aggression is a stable trait → people see others as more provocative (in an aggressive way lol).

• Social norms have an impact as well.. :(

Relation of aggression to sex, gender, and identification with gender norms?

• Men are generally more aggressive than women with different types of aggression.

• Testosterone may explain gender differences (more in men, and linked to aggression).

• Masculine traits and conformity to gender role norms predicts aggression.

What are the different routes described in the general aggression model?

1. Cognition → Increased accessibility and priming = stronger aggression.

2. Affect (Emotion) → Emotional response to frustration causes aggression.

3. Arousal → More arousal triggers stronger aggressive response.

What is the hostile attribution bias?

A cognitive tendency to interpret ambiguous, neutral, or accidental social situations as having malicious or harmful intent.

What is desensitisation?

Habituation: Repeated exposure to violent stimuli weaken impact on psychological and physiological factors.

Why is cyberbullying more intense than face to face bullying?

• Anonymity

• Invisibility of targets

• Availability of targets

• Ease of contacting like-minded people

• Wider group of bullies

• No (traditional) supervision

• Effects seem more extreme: more distress, psychological problems, depression, and even suicides.

What factors predict Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)?

• History of verbal violence

• Alcohol

• Norms

• Hostile sexism, interdependence & power

What is the relationship between IPV, hostile sexism, and relationship interdependence?

Relationship interdependence might be perceived as a loss of power, which could lead to aggression..

^ Particularly for men high in hostile sexism (in which a central conviction is that women would pursue power by getting control over men).

Is IPV a form of intergroup aggression?

Yes.

Refer to intergroup aggression definition.

What is the difference between realistic conflict theory, relative deprivation, and fraternal deprivation? ← Causes.

MATERIAL - Realistic conflict theory (RCT) explains intergroup conflict via actual competition for scarce, material resources.

COGNITIVE - Relative Deprivation (RD) focuses on perceived injustice compared to others.

GROUP - Fraternal Deprivation is a specific type of RD where individuals feel their group is unfairly disadvantaged compared to others.

What is the integrated threat theory?

Realistic (safety/resources - insecurity) and symbolic (identity/values - contempt). threats can escalate conflict.

What is bounded generalized reciprocity?

Dependence on in-group members makes group members allocate more resources to the in-group rather than the out-group.

Is discussion with the in-group a good solution for conflict?

Eh… Depends! Think group polarization!

Is more contact with the out-group always a good solution for conflict?

Maybe not... You see your in-group as more positive and that behaviour is situational, while out-group behaviour is more dispositional…

Also, think reactive devaluation!

How does attribution bias play a role in escalating conflict?

Bias attributions → Same behaviour is seen differently.

In-group: situational

Out-group: dispositional

Does impression of the out-group during conflict become more or less complex?

Less complex → becomes more simple!

Role of norms in reducing conflict?

Extend norms of in-group to the out-group!

Role of empathy in reducing conflict?

Stimulate empathy for out-group!

Role of meditation in reducing conflict?

yo.. should work……..

Role of shared goals in reducing conflict?

it helps!

3 Core Values

Egoistic → Promoting Self

Altruistic → Promoting Others

Ecological → Promoting Nature

Consumerism vs Materialism

Consumerism: An ideology and social system where the ongoing acquisition of goods and services is promoted for wellbeing and social participation.

Materialism: A value orientation in which possessions and wealth are central to life satisfaction, personal success, and identity.

Higher materialism → lower wellbeing, lower prosocial behavior

Two Components of Happiness

Positive affect

• Frequency of experience of positive feelings, moods, and emotions such as joy

Life satisfaction (more cognitive)

• Satisfaction with one’s life

• Feeling life is close to an ideal

3 Ways of Boosting Happiness

1. Aerobic Exercise

2. Nurture Social Relationships

3. Practice Acts of Kindness

Zero Sum Games vs Non-Zero Sum Games

Zero Sum → To become a winner, there must be a loser.

Non-Zero Sum → Multiple winners and losers.

Human-Nature Philosophies

Master (Techno-optimism) → Nature exists for human use. Economic growth and technology can solve any environmental problem.

Steward → We have a responsibility to care for nature on behalf of God and/or future generations.

Participant → Humans are part of nature and share in its health or illness.

Connect back to values!

Sustainability

A balanced system.

Environmental Sustainability → Stable ecosystem, resources, and toxins.

• Ecosystem → The community of interactions between living organisms and with other materials.

How can public opinion shift rapidly? - Tipping Point: Causes

When the perception of the norm changes → Private beliefs may become public → Culture shift!

Why is it so hard to predict tipping points?

• Incoherence

• Inconsistency (over time)

• Sudden change

• Lack of insight

• Social Signalling, not. true beliefs

The Four I’s - Threats Ihat Get Our Attention

1. Intentional

2. Immoral

3. Imminent

4. Instantaneous

What is the theory of Emergency Response? (5 Things!)

1. Notice the problem

2. Interpret the problem as an emergency

3. Feel personally responsible to act

4. Know what to do

5. Do it

Psychological Barriers to the Theory of Emergency Response:

Notice the problem:

a) Lack of information or comprehension

b) Low perception of threat (four I’s)

c) Rejection of conflicting information

Interpret the Problem as an Emergency

a) (a-c) above.

b) As the question becomes more verbal and elaborate (issue vs.emergency): motivated reasoning

Feel Personally Responsible To Act

a) Self-interest

b) Free riding

c) Belief in a just world

Tragedy of the Common

A type of social dilemma.

A social dilemma is a broad conflict between individual self-interest and collective long-term benefit.

Tragedy of the commons specifically describes how shared, finite resources are depleted by individuals acting in their own self-interest.

Free Riding

Individual benefit without effort.

How to reduce free riding? (Name a few)

1. Individual performance can be evaluated

2. Expect to be punished for poor performance

3. Individual effort is necessary for success

4. The task is important to you

5. The group is small

6. The group is cohesive

Belief in a Just World

We have a need to believe the world is a predictable and just place where people get what they deserve.

• Leads to the is-ought problem

Belief in a just world is a barrier to action because it reduces the perception of a problem and the acceptance of responsibility.

Classic Model of Climate Change Mitigation

The above model doesn’t really work… So the below would be much better.

3 R’s of Climate

1. Reality → Scientists are convinced human-caused climate change is occuring. Harmful climate change impacts are already happening and will get worse.

2. Risk → Out climate may get worse than expected and there may be surprises.

3. Response → The sooner we react, the better. We can still do things.

Identity Signalling

We are motivated to feel good about ourselves and groups, the behaviours we do signal our reputation and ideas about ourselves.

Green-to-be-Seen

People who do “green” behaviour will do said behaviour so that it is seen to present their identity as an environmentalists.

Two Main Climate Change Strategies

1. Adaption → Fix our vulnerabilities to a world that has been changed by climate change: Health programs, promoting adaptation, relocation, upgrading buildings and infrastructure.

2. Mitigation → Stop climate change from occurring: Renewable energy, sustainable transportation, carbon sinks, energy conservation.

Reducing food waste is both!

Potential Exam Question

You install air conditioning in your home to keep cool during summer, is that adaptation or mitigation?

Answer: Adaptation

What proportion of scientists agree that climate change is a result of human activity?

100% (Some argue between 97-100%).

Descriptive Social Norms

Social norms (mental representations) that people actually do. It describes their actions, thoughts, and feelings.

Injunctive Social Norms

Social norms (mental representations) that people should do, think, and feel.

Conformity

The convergence of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviour towards a social norm.

Private Conformity

When people accept and conform to something internally.

Public Conformity

When people accept and conform to something publicly, but do not accept or conform it privately.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate everyone’s agreement with your own characteristics, opinions, and behaviour.

Informational Influence

In ambiguous situations, people are more likely to conform because they believe the group holds information that they do not.

Normative Influence

People conform to fit in.

Reference Group

People accepted as an appropriate source of information for a judgement because they have relevant attributes that make them worthy of such a judgement. For example, on Asch’s line test, following the opinion of those with good eyesight.

Group Polarization

The process by which a group’s initial average becomes more extreme in either direction after communicating in a group.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Occurs when everyone publicly conforms, believes others privately conform, but nobody actually privately conforms.