biological molecules flashcards

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169 Terms

1

define monomers

single repeating units from which polymers are made up of

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2

define polymers

large, complex molecules composed of long chains of monomers joined together (in a condensation reaction)

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3

what are three examples of monomers

amino acids, nucleotides, monosaccharides

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4

what are three examples of polymers

protein, DNA, starch

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5

what is a condensation reaction

the formation of larger biological molecules (polymers) from smaller molecules (monomers). in each reaction, a water molecule is produced and a bond is formed.

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6

what does the condensation of amino acids produce

proteins

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7

what does the condensation of two monosaccharides produce

a disaccharide

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8

what does the condensation of many monosaccharides produce

polysaccharides

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9

what does the condensation of fatty acids + monoglycerides produce

lipids

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10

what is a hydrolysis reaction

the breakdown of large biological molecules into smaller molecules due to bonds being broken by the addition of water molecules

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11

why are polymers hydrolysed

monomers can easily diffuse into cells or be transported using protein channels, whereas polymers can’t

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12

what does the hydrolysis of a protein produce

amino acids

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13

what does the hydrolysis of a carbohydrate produce

disaccharides + monosaccharides

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14

what does the hydrolysis of lipids produce

fatty acids + monoglycerides

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15

what’s a disaccharide

two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond

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16

what’s a monosaccharide

a simple sugar (e.g. glucose), composed of one monomer

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17

what’s a polysaccharide

many monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds

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18

what’s a covalent bond

a chemical bond in which two atoms share a pair of electrons (one from each atom)

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19

what’s a hydrogen bond

a chemical bond formed between the positive charge on a hydrogen atom + the negative charge on another atom of an adjacent molecule

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20

define isomer

molecules with the same molecular formula as each other, but a different arrangement of atoms (e.g. alpha glucose and beta glucose)

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21

what atoms are carbohydrates made up of

carbon, hydrogen + oxygen

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22

name three disaccharides

maltose, sucrose + lactose

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23

what monosaccharides is maltose made up of

glucose + glucose

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24

what monosaccharides is sucrose made up of

glucose + fructose

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25

what two monosaccharides is lactose made up of

glucose + galactose

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26

what’s the chemical formula of glucose

C6H12O6

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27

name three monosaccharides

glucose, galactose and fructose

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28

what type of sugar is glucose

a hexose sugar

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29

how many carbon atoms does each glucose molecule have

6

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30

what are three examples of polysaccharides

starch, glycogen + cellulose

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31

what is the test for reducing sugars

add Benedict’s reagent + heat in a water bath (positive result= blue to brick red)

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32

which sugars are reducing sugars

  • all monosaccharides:

    • glucose

    • galactose

    • fructose

  • some disaccharides:

    • lactose

    • maltose

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33

what colour change will there be for a positive result for testing for reducing sugars

blue to brick red

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34

what is the test for non-reducing sugars

  • boil in dilute hydrochloric acid

  • neutralise by adding sodium hydrogen carbonate

  • add Benedict’s reagent

  • positive result= blue to brick red

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35

name a non-reducing sugar

sucrose

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36

what does adding hydrochloric acid to a non-reducing sugar do

a hydrolysis reaction occurs, breaking the glycosidic bond + producing glucose + fructose (two reducing sugars)

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37

name three examples of polysaccharides

starch, cellulose + glycogen

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38

what monosaccharide is starch made from

alpha glucose

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39

what is the function of starch

it’s the main energy storage material in plants (it’s broken down into glucose by plants when they need more energy)

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40

where is starch stored in plants

seeds

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41

what are the features of starch

  • insoluble in water so doesn’t affect cells water potential

  • helical + compact so lots can be stored in a small space

  • has branched chains which can be easily hydrolysed to quickly release glucose for respiration

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42

what is the test for starch

add iodine solution (positive result= colour change from orange to blue/black)

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43

what monosaccharide is glycogen made from

alpha glucose

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44

what is the function of glycogen

main energy store material in humans/ animals

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45

what are the features of glycogen

  • highly branched so can be rapidly hydrolysed to release glucose for respiration (glycogenolysis)

  • compact so lots can be stored in a small space

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46

what monosaccharide is cellulose made from

beta glucose

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47

what is the function of cellulose

major component of cell walls in plants

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48

what are the features of cellulose

  • long unbranched chains

  • cellulose chains linked together by hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils, which provide structural support

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49

what methods can be used to measure the concentration of reducing sugars

  • filter, dry + weigh precipitate

  • test light absorbance using a colorimeter

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50

what atoms are lipids made of

carbon, hydrogen + oxygen

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51

what are the two main groups of lipids

triglycerides + phospholipids

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52

what are triglycerides made of

three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule joined together in a condensation reaction

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53

what type of bonds are formed between the glycerol molecule + fatty acids in a triglyceride

ester bonds

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54

how many molecules of water is released per triglyceride formed

three because one water molecule is released per ester bond

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55

what are the fatty acid tails made of

hydrocarbons

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56

are the fatty acid hydrocarbon tails in triglycerides hydrophobic or hydrophylic

hydrophobic

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57

why are lipids insoluble in water

the fatty acid hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic (they repel water molecules)

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58

what varies in fatty acids

the hydrocarbon (R group)

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59

what are the two kinds of fatty acid

saturated + unsaturated

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60

what are saturated fatty acids

a fatty acid with no double bonds between the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acid

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61

what are unsaturated fatty acids

a fatty acid with at least one double carbon to carbon bond in the hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acid

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62

what’s the function of triglycerides

chemical energy is stored in the fatty acid hydrocarbon tails, so lots of energy is released when triglycerides are broken down

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63

do carbohydrates or lipids have more energy

lipids have twice the amount of energy per gram as carbohydrates

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64

how do lipid droplets form

the insoluble triglycerides crowd together as droplets because the hydrophobic fatty acid tails face inwards

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65

define hydrophilic

water loving

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66

define hydrophobic

water hating

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67

what are phospholipids made of

  • 1 glycerol molecule

  • 2 fatty acids

  • 1 phosphate group

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68

what’s the difference between triglycerides and phospholipids

one of the three hydrophobic fatty acid tails in a triglyceride is replaced by a hydrophilic phosphate group in a phospholipid

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69

is the phosphate group in a phospholipid hydrophobic or hydrophilic

hydrophilic

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70

are the fatty acid tails in a phospholipid hydrophobic or hydrophilic

hydrophobic

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71

which part of a phospholipid is hydrophobic + which part is hydrophilic

the tail is hydrophobic + the head is hydrophilic, so tails face inwards + heads face outwards

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72

what is the test for lipids

emulsion test:

  • shake with ethanol

  • add water

  • positive= white, milky emulsion

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73

what’s the function of triglycerides

energy storage molecules

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74

what’s the function of phospholipids

they make up the bilayer of cell membranes (which control what enters + leaves the cell)

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75

how does the structure of triglycerides relate to their function

  • long hydrocarbon tails of fatty acids contain lots of chemical energy + this is released when they’re broken down (lipids contain twice amount of energy per gram as carbohydrates because of tails)

  • insoluble, so don’t affect a cells water potential. triglycerides clump together as insoluble droplets because fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (tails face inwards + glycerol heads face outwards)

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76

how does the structure of phospholipids relate to their function

  • hydrophilic heads + hydrophobic tails, so they form a double layer with heads facing outwards on either side

  • centre of the bilayer is hydrophobic, so water soluble substances can’t easily pass through it

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77

what are dipeptides

two amino acids joined together by a peptide bond in a condensation reaction

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78

what are polypeptides

many amino acids joined together by peptide bonds in a condensation reaction

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79

what is the structure of amino acids

central carbon atom with 4 groups of atoms bonded to it:

  • amine group (NH2)

  • carboxyl group (COOH)

  • hydrogen group (H)

  • R group

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80

how many different types of amino acids are there

20

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81

what bonds form between amino acids

peptide bonds

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82

how is a protein formed

  • condensation reaction

  • peptide bond forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid + the amine group of a second amino acid

  • a water molecule per bond is released as a by product

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83

what are the functions of proteins

  • enzymes

  • antibodies

  • transport proteins (e.g. channel proteins which transport molecules that are too large to diffuse freely or molecules that carry a large charge)

  • structural proteins (e.g. collagen and keratin)

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84

what is the test for proteins

add Biuret solution (positive result= colour change from blue to purple)

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85

what colour change is observed for a positive Biuret test for proteins

blue to purple

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86

define primary structure of proteins

sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain

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87

what is the primary structure of a protein determined by

the gene encoding the protein

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88

what is the importance of a proteins primary structure

  • a change in the nucleotide sequence of the gene’s coding region may lead to a different amino acid being added to the polypeptide chain

  • a change in the amino acids in a protein could change the protein’s structure and function

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89

define secondary structure of proteins

the way in which the polypeptide chain coils into a helix (alpha helix) or folds into pleats (beta pleated sheet)

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90

what are the two most common secondary structures of proteins

alpha helix or beta pleated sheet

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91

what makes a polypeptide coil or fold

hydrogen bonds which form between amino acids in the polypeptide chain

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92

what makes the secondary structure of proteins stable

individual weak hydrogen bonds between amino acids are weak, but there are many bonds throughout the molecule

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93

define tertiary structure of proteins

when the secondary structure is coiled or folded further to form 3D shapes

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94

what holds together the tertiary structure of a protein

  • ionic bonds (attractions between negative + positive charges on different parts of the molecule)

  • hydrogen bonds (between amino acids)

  • disulfide bridges (form when two molecules of amino acid cysteine come close together)

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95

define quaternary structure of proteins

when many different polypeptide chains are held together by bonds to form a complex quaternary structure

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96

how do you know if a protein has a quaternary structure

it consists of more than one polypeptide chain

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97

what is the structure of haemoglobin

four polypeptide chains + four prosthetic haem groups

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98

what are enzymes

proteins which catalyse reactions (biological catalysts)

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99

what is a catalyst

an substance which speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up itself

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100

how do enzymes speed up chemical reactions

they lower the activation energies of chemical reactions by binding to the reactant molecules (substrate) + allowing the chemical bond-breaking + bond-forming process to happen more easily

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