AP Psychology Unit 0: Science Practices Overview

Psychology

Seeks to answer questions about how and why we think, feel, and act, using research and interpretation of data.

Concept Application

Students should be able to apply psychological perspectives, theories, concepts, and research findings.

Research Methods and Design

Students should be able to evaluate qualitative and quantitative research methods and study designs.

Data Interpretation

Students should be able to evaluate representations of psychological concepts in quantitative and qualitative research.

Argumentation

Students should be able to develop and justify psychological arguments using evidence.

Cultural Norms

Expectations and circumstances that apply to behavior and mental processes.

Cognitive Biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment.

Qualitative Research Methods

Research methods that collect non-numerical data to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences.

Quantitative Research Methods

Research methods that collect numerical data to quantify variables and analyze relationships.

Central Tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution.

Variation

A measure of how much the scores in a data set differ from each other.

Percentile Rank

A statistical measure that indicates the value below which a given percentage of observations fall.

Defensible Claim

A statement that can be supported with evidence and reasoning.

Scientific Attitude

A mindset that includes curiosity, skepticism, and humility in scientific inquiry.

Critical Thinking

The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Ethical Procedures

Guidelines that ensure research is conducted in a morally acceptable manner.

Inferential Data

Data that allows researchers to make inferences about a population based on a sample.

Tables, Graphs, Charts, Figures, and Diagrams

Visual representations of data used to convey information clearly and efficiently.

Psychological Perspectives

Different approaches to understanding human behavior and mental processes.

Research Design Elements

Components that structure a research study, including variables, controls, and methodologies.

Established Claim

A claim that has been previously accepted or recognized based on evidence.

Smarter Thinking

The ability to think critically and make informed decisions in everyday life.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's own abilities or knowledge.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-report Bias

The tendency for people to provide inaccurate or false responses to surveys or questionnaires.

Experimenter Bias

The influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of the research.

Population

The entire group of individuals that researchers are interested in studying.

Sample

A subset of the population selected for participation in a study.

Sampling Bias

A bias that occurs when the sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.

Random Sample

A sample that is selected randomly from the population, giving each member an equal chance of being chosen.

Convenience Sampling

A sampling method that involves selecting individuals who are easiest to reach.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Peer Reviewers

Experts in the field who evaluate research for quality and validity before publication.

Theory

A well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can incorporate laws, hypotheses, and facts.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a hypothesis that allows it to be proven false.

Operational Definition

A statement of the procedures or ways in which a researcher is going to measure behaviors or qualities.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the results are consistent.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique for combining the findings from independent studies.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation.

Survey

A research method that involves collecting data from a predefined group of respondents to gain information and insights.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

Variable

Any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two quantitative variables.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Directionality Problem

The issue of determining the direction of the relationship between two correlated variables.

Third Variable Problem

The possibility that a third variable is influencing both of the variables being studied.

Regression Toward the Mean

The phenomenon where extreme values on a variable tend to be closer to the average on subsequent measurements.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment and serves as a comparison.

Independent Variable(s)

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect.

Dependent Variable(s)

The variable that is measured in an experiment to see if it is affected by the independent variable.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to the experimental and control groups by chance.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the participants are unaware of which group they are in.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group is which.

Placebo

A substance with no therapeutic effect used as a control in testing new drugs.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon in which patients experience a perceived improvement in their condition due to their expectations.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Quantitative Research

Research that deals with numbers and statistics.

Qualitative Research

Research that deals with descriptions and characteristics that can be observed but not measured.

Likert Scales

A rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions.

Institutional Review

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

Informed Consent

The process of getting permission from participants before involving them in a study.

Informed Assent

The process of obtaining agreement from individuals who are not able to give informed consent themselves.

Protect from Harm

An ethical guideline that ensures participants are not exposed to unnecessary risks.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle that requires researchers to keep participants' information private.

Research Confederates

Individuals who are part of the research team but act as participants in the study.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the study after it has been conducted.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that summarize and describe the characteristics of a data set.

Measure of Central Tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution.

Percentile Rank

A measure that indicates the value below which a given percentage of observations fall.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of all values by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a data set when the numbers are arranged in order.

Skewed Distribution

A distribution that is not symmetrical and has a tail on one side.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two different modes.

Measures of Variation

Statistics that describe the spread of data points in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of many types of data.

Inferential Statistics

Statistics that allow researchers to make inferences about a population based on a sample.

Statistical Significance

A determination of whether the observed effect in a study is likely due to chance.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon.