Midterm Study Material

From all lectures as well as chapters 1-7 of the Wiesner-Hanks textbook

How did the printing press become popular in Early Modern Europe?

It already existed in China since ~1000, but upon coming to Europe ~1500 was adopted quickly and more efficiently than in China due to differences in the alphabets

What technological advances were recognised at the time as influential in Early Modern Europe?

The creation of the printing press, gunpowder, and the compass → Sir Francis Bacon recognising their importance

What were the overall estimates for the number of publications throughout Early Modern Europe after the invention of the printing press?

• Before 1500 → 20 million

• 1500-1600 → 150-200 million

• 1700-1800 → 1500 million

France and Russia do not contribute as much to these figures → increased censorship

How was reading embraced in Early Modern Europe?

Learning to read became more popular (not write) as reading was seen as more essential and reading became a social activity in which those who could not read were read to

What factors influenced literacy rates?

Gender, population, and education access

What are the main arguments in favour of the idea of a print revolution?

• The press marked a shift in production methods that allowed mass reliable replication of words and symbols

• Standardisation of texts allowed stable forms of texts to exist and made acquiring new knowledge easier

• Preservation of texts allowed maintenance of art and the potential to bring about change

• Diffusion resulted in increased scholarly change facilitated by libraries and bookstores

• Print supported Protestantism by spreading ideas without idolatry (often true of imagery)

• Print was influential within English Civil Wars with the production of propaganda and easy spread of the ideas

• Underground print markets gave more access to ideas 

What are the main arguments against the idea of a print revolution?

• The print revolution was only impactful due to a variety of other factors

• Rise of transportation networks and postal system allowed faster travelling of items → without ability to transport them, books would not have been influential

• The transition from oral to written tradition has been overexaggerated, with scribes existing pre-printing and oral tradition continuing post-printing

• Early Modern Europe continued to rely on oral traditions, which may have shaped print around them

• Large distrust of print meant new ideas were not always accepted → anonymity of authors allowed spreading of ideas just for profit, not for truth

• Hostility towards press existed with arguments that print pandered rather than expressing true thoughts

• Regimes could be strengthened just as much as they were weakened by print

• Correlation between print and action is not strongly established

How did rising population in Early Modern Europe impact society?

It altered labour supply, food demand, and prices, shaping debates about economic improvements and ideas about capital accumulation and commercialism

How did agriculture develop throughout Early Modern Europe?

Systems of the Middle Ages persisted, but many areas did see innovations of crop rotations, tools, enclosures, and land consolidation that raised productivity and supported urban growth → responses were uneven with some regions intensifying peasant commericialisation and others tightening traditional obligations

How did economic development differ between western and eastern Early Modern Europe?

Western Europe saw commercialisation of agriculture and market ties to towns whereas eastern Europe moved towards neo-serfdom with increased slave or serf labour 

How was mining important to the economy in Early Modern Europe?

Expansion of mining and improvements in metallurgy were important sources of wealth, state revenue, and technological transfer → stimulation of related industries 

Why were economic and technological changes in Early Modern Europe important

They restructured labour, social relations, and state finances, creating conditions for expanding markets, stronger fiscal states, and divergent regional paths

How was state involvement present in exploration in Early Modern Europe?

State involvement was common across states and crucial in order to foot costs and reduce risk of voyages → in return for sponsoring expeditions, states got taxes, colonies, and were able to spread religion

What were the main technological advances seen in seafaring in Early Modern Europe?

• Emergence of new navigational technology with gimballed compass, astrolabe, and techniques for coordination with the sun

• Portuguese caravel (15th century) makes deep sea voyages possible with new construction techniques, rigging of sails, masts, and manning → overtaken by Dutch fluyt that is faster and could carry more

• Rise of naval battles fought without boarding due to increased manoeuvrability, naval guns, and portholes

Technological advancements are largely shared due to difficulty in keeping them secret, especially with the printing press

What navigational techniques became obsolete?

• Use of charts and land-sightings to get bearings

• Mercator and Zacuto’s development of tables to locate ships using stars → only works in northern hemisphere with Polaris

How did Spain and Portugal have an advantage in terms of trade in Early Modern Europe?

According to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, the west was owned by the Spanish (excepting Brazil) and the east was owned by the Portuguese (excepting Philippines) → reinforced with Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529 sanctioning Spanish and Portuguese expansion

How did European nations other than Spain and Portugal trade with the Treaty of Tordesillas?

They found routes around those held by Spanish and Portuguese, avoiding conflict and establishing other colonies, including plantation settlements that allowed states to profit without large amounts of trade

How do the Portuguese and Spanish trade empires differ?

Spain remains powerful and dominant until 1750, whereas Portugal falters around 1600 due to lacking manpower and prospects at which point the Dutch take over

Why did the Netherlands dominate trade in the east?

They had the best technology, fleets, guns, and commanders → Piet Hein being good navigator that captured Spanish fleets of gold and silver, Pieterszoon Coen ensuring spice islands remain Dutch and Amsterdam profits

How did the Dutch capitalise on their lucrative trade networks?

They established sophisticated banking systems with joint stock companies that could pool risk and allow for profit, as well as investing in other companies including the English East India Company

What was a result of Dutch wealth due to trade?

The Dutch Renaissance in the 17th century where since the wealthy could not invest in property, they invested in art and agriculture, leading to an artistic boom

How were the Dutch superseded in trade by the British East India Company?

It was a slow process, starting with England beginning to emulate Dutch practices, the Dutch investing in England, England increasing profit due to trade in India and Bengal, and slowly the British overtake the Dutch

Why were the English invested in India and Bengal?

They could not go elsewhere in the east due to Dutch presence, but soon found that both Mugal India and Bengal have sophisticated economies that are profitable → French eventually also compete leading to the 7 years war

What were the common traits shared by European states in terms of seaborne expansion in Early Modern Europe?

There were common themes of state support and shared technological advances

Where did reform begin and how was it spread at the beginning of the Reformation?

Reform began within the Catholic church, expanding through figures like Martin Luther, with spread being driven by urban networks, political support, and printing

What did reformers challenge in the Reformation?

Clerical authority, church practices, and the structure of religious life

What were the results of the Catholic Reformation?

It lead to the Catholic church being more structured, emphasising doctrine, moral reform, and missionary work, emerging from the Council of Trent and new orders such as the Jesuits

How did religion influence war and state power in the Reformation?

Confessional divisions fuelled war, revolts, and power struggles while rulers used religion to consolidate control and define state identity

How did churches influence life during the Reformation?

Churches regulated morality, marriage, and community life as confessional churches became more integrated into state structures → regional differences persist with local traditions operating alongside new structures

How did religious reform transform Early Modern Europe?

It changed European politics, identity, and culture, laying foundations for later debates of tolerance, state power, and secularisation

What was humanism?

It was a new mode of thought (departing from medieval thought) that increased consideration of the physical human experience in addition to spiritual/religious ones → placed emphasis on significance of human actions and reflection upon humanity

Who was one of the foremost thinkers of humanists and what were some of their ideas?

Erasmus argued that the writer should reflect and look at everything with an inquisitive eye → went on to inspire Martin Luther’s examination of church

How was the print revolution involved in the Reformation?

Print allowed ideas to spread widely as well as in vernacular languages 

What could be considered the start of the Reformation?

Martin Luther’s publishing of his 95 theses about challenges faced by the church that argued the church over-emphasised the need for funds, being wealthy enough on its own, and said faith was more essential than contribution

How does the church respond to Luther’s 95 theses?

They hold council and decide to excommunicate him at the insistence of Charles V, however Luther gains protection from Frederick III and wider supporters, allowing him to survive

How did the catholic church react to emerging protests?

• Charles V was slow to move, underestimating the power of the protests

• Council at Trent was held which aimed to reduce arguments of dissenters and make Catholicism more appealing, but failed

• Peace of Augsburg sees Catholics finally acknowledge Protestant Lutherans 

What are the three main methods used by the Catholics for their counter-Reformation?

1. Ideological approaches led by Jesuits encourage debate of ideas and attempt reconversion of new Protestants

2. Secular powers ask Catholic rulers to fight against Protestants and sets of religious wars break out

3. Political influence is used to lobby and dominate

Counter-Reformation succeeds, with lands being reclaimed and the spread of Protestantism slowing

Why was Protestantism appealing in the Americas?

Luther’s message was straightforward, and allowed people to get on with their lives whilst still being religious

How do state religions arise with the Reformation?

Henry VIII sees potential to break from Rome with the creation of the Anglican church and endorsement by the state, while Geneva becomes the first place to build a ‘Calvin community’

How does Calvinism emerge?

It is started by John Calvin and centres around inherent sin, salvation, and pre-destination, with arguments that are seen as opposing and rejected by Augsburg → seen as Reformed Protestantism and spread from Switzerland to other European states as well as the Americas

What are some sociological interpretations of the rise of Protestantism?

Max Weber argues that Protestantism was particularly successful due to encouraging hard work and capitalism, while others counter that the argument places Protestantism on a moral high ground

How did the print revolution work alongside the Renaissance?

Print culture made ideas more widely available, increasing scientific, religious, and secular knowledge

How did humanism shape education?

It reshaped curricula in many universities and secondary schools to promote classical languages, rhetoric, and broader cultural learning, however education continued to be uneven across regions, classes, and genders

What sort of academic shifts came with the Renaissance?

There was growing interest in experimentation, natural philosophy, new instruments, and challenging of frameworks

How was art important in the Renaissance?

Cultural productions were intertwined with political and religious patrons, with art becoming a tool for power, a way of visualising new world-views/status, as well as a way to link thinkers with elites

How were women involved in the Renaissance?

Women’s literacy rates, patronage roles, and participation in correspondence circles grew, but still remained small compared to men

How was cultural exchange present in the Renaissance?

Trade, exploration, translation of texts, and circulation of items broadened the horizons of thinkers and influenced the content of culture

How was continuity present in the Renaissance?

Older traditions such as classical learning, church-sponsored universities, and patronage persisted from earlier periods

How did the Renaissance move Europe into the modern era?

It included more widespread literacy, critical thinking, scientific inquiry, and visual/print culture

Was intellectual life in the Renaissance isolated?

No, intellectual life was not isolated, it related to social structures, economic capacity, and global context

Who came up with the term ‘Renaissance’ and what was its significance?

The term was coined by Jacob Burkhardt in 1860 to give distinction between the medieval period, or the Dark Ages, and Early Modern Europe, which he saw as a significant break from the Middle Ages

What are the central arguments against the idea of Burkhardt’s Renaissance?

• Medieval scholars aware of classical thought → Thomas Aquinas blending classical and theological thought while believing in reason and argumentation

• Blending of biblical and classical thought that was present in Middle Ages is central to humanists of Renaissance

• Urban development occurs in Middle Ages, with mercantile groups existing alongside developing trade → rise of Ottoman empire actually limited trade in Renaissance

• Parliamentary constitutions and discussions in Middle Ages with advances against autocratic power (Magna Carta, 1215) and ideas of balanced and expanded power (Simon de Montfort, 1265)

Knowledge and learning, urban development, and political structures are all continuous from Middle Ages to the Renaissance

What are the central arguments for the idea of Burkhardt’s Renaissance?

• Rise of Gothic architecture breaks from Romanesque architecture common in the Middle Ages → increased light and references to classical architecture; Palladian style indicating increased confidence in environment and break from superstition

• Shifts in visual arts with shifts to realism, better perspective, and classical inspirations → not only revolving around theology, art for art’s sake rather than for the church

• Way of thinking embodied by Leonardo da Vinci → idea of being well-versed in a variety of subjects reflecting Renaissance mind and spirit

Architecture, environmental confidence, visual arts, and changes in attitude towards thought are all breaks with the Middle Ages 

How did the nobility seek to expand authority in Early Modern Europe?

They introduced taxation, standing armies, regulation of nobles, and management of court factions, all while maintaining local power and regional autonomy → resulted in uneven process of state-building

What was the military shift in Early Modern Europe?

There were larger armies, greater expense, increased use of gunpowder, increased necessity for professional soldiers, and growing importance of naval power → forced increased revenues, centralised taxation, and increased administration

How did diplomacy change in Early Modern Europe?

States increasingly engaged in diplomacy, alliances, marriages, and imperial ambitions beyond Europe in order to manage war, territory, and power

What were the main networks of political power in Early Modern Europe?

Rulers negotiated with urban elites, provincial estates, and parliaments for taxation and local governance → not just top down power

How was religion used as a tool of power in Early Modern Europe?

Rulers used confessions (common between Catholics and Protestants) to increase legitimacy, control, and identity

How did the state and society generally interact in Early Modern Europe?

The state increasingly intervened in society (management of justice, introduction of bureaucracies, regulating public order) and society had instances of pushback (rebellions, local privileges, negotiations)

Was state formation uniform across Europe?

No, it was uneven, with different regions and social groups experiencing change differently

How was religion an important part of local communities in Early Modern Europe?

The over 100,000 parishes across Europe were in charge of some governing, expecting some things from citizens, but also helping their communities

What would typically be expected of citizens by a parish?

• Knowledge of church structure, Lord’s prayer and other select prayers in Latin

• Weekly attendance of church

• Adherence to 10 commandments, avoidance of 7 deadly sins, and embracing of 7 virtues

What are the 7 virtues?

1. Humility → modesty

2. Generosity → charity

3. Kindness → gratitude

4. Patience → compassion

5. Chastity → purity

6. Temperance → moderation

7. Diligence → fervour

How was the church important to community in Early Modern Europe?

It offered sanctuary in a life of suffering, helped practically by catering to the population, was decorated with visuals to convey stories to illiterate population, and offered the framework to life

What was the view of the Reformation in the 1960s and how has it changed now?

• Previously, it was thought the Reformation came about due to decline in the Middle Ages in religion paired with demands of reform and doubt in the church

• Now thought that Reformation is due to large amounts of enthusiasm for theological debate and increased faith

What aspects of faith in everyday society are often overlooked when examining the Reformation?

Most could not engage with theological debates due to not reading Latin or reading at all, popular belief continued to place importance on pagan objects or relics, and faith was put into other forms of thought such as magic and cunning folk

What three major shifts made up the military revolution in Early Modern Europe?

1. Changes in tactics and strategy

2. Growth of the state and state control

3. Radical changes in military administration and financing

What changes in the composition of armies occurred in Early Modern Europe?

Previously small armies grew in size, with the majority of soldiers being infantry men, who replaced expensive cavalry → infantry were more expensive to train, but cheap to maintain, meaning their use allowed the growth of armies that would have been impossible using cavalry

How did military architecture change in Early Modern Europe?

There was a shift from castles to angled bastions that were harder to take with cannon fire, but were expensive to build, increasing military expenses

How did increased military expenses shape the state in Early Modern Europe?

The need to raise funds quickly led to the emergence of centralised authorities that could collect money, which then sought to maintain the state and overcome political corruption

Financially, how were wars fought in Early Modern Europe?

They were fought on credit, where states at war would borrow money from other states to invest in their militaries, and would pay back the loan over time, hopefully in times of peace → ability of English to beat French despite having 1/3 of their population due to having good reputation for paying back credit, while the French didn’t

How did the centralisation of government help financially in Early Modern Europe?

It helped overcome the limits of local populations by establishing larger taxation and revenue systems that could meet the costs of war → states that evolved and centralised were more likely to survive

What were households like in Early Modern Europe?

They were organised around a marital couple who supported themselves and paid obligations through agricultural production

What were the main reasons for travel in Early Modern Europe?

Trading luxury goods over land and sea routes (merchants) or visiting holy sites (pilgrims)

What was the dominant socio-economic group in European society?

The nobility

What major event would contribute to increased European exploration?

The Ottoman capture of Constantinople in 1453 and their continued expansion into southeastern Europe

What were main traits of the Christian church in central and western Europe?

It was a wealthy, hierarchical, and bureaucratic institution headed by the popes with significant power held by bishops

What was the major religion in Europe?

Christianity, although Jews and Muslims were also present

How was production mainly organised in Early Modern Europe?

It was organised through urban craft guilds with the exception of clothmaking and mining starting to be organised along capitalist lines

How were clothmaking and mining organised along capitalist lines?

An investor would provide the financial backing for machinery, tools, and raw materials and would pay workers wages

What were the most significant technological developments in Early Modern Europe?

The printing press and gunpowder, which was invented in China and spread westward by the Mongols

What was the main motivation for increased European exploration in the 15th century?

Existing trade networks, especially in the Indian Ocean

How did the Portuguese pursue exploration and trade?

They sailed around Africa to reach the Indian Ocean and profited from trade with West Africa, mainly of gold and slaves

How did Spain respond to Portuguese exploration and trade?

They aimed to compete and counter the rising Ottomans with Columbus’ 1492 voyage → landed in the Caribbean rather than Asia but sparked further exploration

Which nation built the largest empire in the Americas?

Spain, who conquered the Aztec and Inca empires

What was England’s initial exploration of North America like?

They explored, such as with John Cabot’s expedition, but wouldn’t establish successful colonies until the 1600s

What were the main impacts of European expansion to Asia?

They were minimal with local systems remaining in tact

What were the main impacts of European expansion on West Africa?

Trade and weapons disrupted power dynamics, fuelled warfare, and the slave trade rose and expanded

What were the main impacts of European expansion in the Americas?

Indigenous populations were devastated, being subject to deadly diseases and outmatched by European weaponry

What were the main economic impacts of European expansion on Europe?

• Plantations emerged and generated wealth

• Precious metals were mined and sold → gold and silver enriched

• Trade networks expanded and moved crops, animals, and people across continents

• Establishments of churches grew religons

What were the key commodities carried in the Indian Ocean trading network?

• Spices → food, medicine, prestige

• Textiles → widely traded, high demand

• Precious metals, pearls → valuable for trade and status

• Chinese porcelain and manufactured goods

• Slaves and raw materials

Why were nations attracted to trade routes in the Indian Ocean?

• High profits

• Bypassing of middlemen (Ottomans, Venetians)

• Already established trade networks make entering easier

• Religious/political motives → countering Muslim influence and increasing own power

What were Columbus’ preconceptions about what he would find on his voyages?

He believed the earth was smaller and hoped to reach Asia by sailing across the Atlantic → hoped to find gold, spices, friendly inhabitants, and Christian allies

How did Columbus’ preconceptions shape his voyage?

• Able to get state funding from Spain for his voyages

• Loaded his ship with preparations in anticipation of an Asian or Muslim court

• Thought that the Caribbean islands he found were off Asia and treated indigenous peoples accordingly

What were the two main motivations for European exploration?

1. Opportunities for ‘God, gold, and glory’ → religious conversion, profit, and national prestige

2. Restriction of typical trade routes by Ottoman Empire → increased pricing and reduced access

Why did the Aztec and Inca civilisations fall to European explorers?

They were decimated by diseases (small pox, measles, influenza) with population shrinking by over 90% as well as being vulnerable to more advanced European weapons and warfare

Why did initial European expansion not impact the Near East, India, and China?

They all had similar military technology and were able to adopt fighting techniques quickly to counter Europeans

How did European colonisation change Mesoamerica?

Mesoamerica became increasingly tied to Europe, being governed and occupied, evangelised, incorporated into trade networks, and exploited → shaped to more closely resemble Europeans through diet and activities

What crops became staples in Europe after colonisation of the Americas?

Tobacco, beans, maize, and the potato

How did religious conversion occur in the Americas?

Colonists were concerned due to traditional faith being maintained and syncretism, so had people build their churches to inspire faith