4.1: Electoral Systems and Rules

• Electoral systems and rules are the set of laws and regulations that govern the process of electing representatives to public office.

• These systems and rules vary from country to country and can have a significant impact on the outcome of elections.

Types of Electoral Systems

• First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)

  • The candidate with the most votes wins.

  • Used in countries like the UK, Canada, and India.

  • Can lead to a two-party system and a lack of representation for smaller parties.

• Proportional Representation (PR)

  • Seats are allocated based on the percentage of votes a party receives.

  • Used in countries like Germany, Spain, and New Zealand.

  • Allows for greater representation of smaller parties but can lead to unstable governments.

• Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP)

  • Combines elements of FPTP and PR.

  • Voters cast two votes, one for a candidate and one for a party.

  • Used in countries like Germany and New Zealand.

Electoral Rules

• Voter Eligibility

  • Determines who is eligible to vote in an election.

  • Can vary based on age, citizenship, and residency requirements.

• Campaign Finance

  • Regulates how much money candidates and parties can spend on their campaigns.

  • Aims to prevent corruption and ensure a level playing field.

• Ballot Design

  • Determines how the ballot is designed and how candidates are listed.

  • Can impact the outcome of an election.

• Vote Counting

  • Determines how votes are counted and how winners are determined.

  • Can vary based on the electoral system in place.

4.2: Objectives of Election Rules

• Fairness: The primary objective of election rules is to ensure that the election process is fair and impartial. This means that all candidates and political parties should have an equal opportunity to participate in the election process.

• Transparency: Election rules aim to ensure that the election process is transparent. This means that the process should be open to public scrutiny and that all stakeholders should have access to information about the election process.

• Accountability: Election rules aim to ensure that all stakeholders are held accountable for their actions during the election process. This includes candidates, political parties, election officials, and voters.

• Integrity: Election rules aim to ensure that the election process is free from fraud, corruption, and other forms of malpractice. This means that the election process should be conducted with integrity and that all stakeholders should act in good faith.

• Participation: Election rules aim to encourage participation in the election process. This means that all eligible voters should have an opportunity to vote and that all candidates and political parties should have an opportunity to participate in the election process.

Regime Objectives with Electoral Rules

• Maintaining power: Regimes that seek to maintain power may design electoral rules that favor the ruling party or coalition. For example, they may use gerrymandering to create districts that are favorable to their candidates, or they may require high thresholds for parties to enter parliament, which can limit the number of opposition parties that can compete.

• Legitimacy: Regimes that seek to enhance their legitimacy may design electoral rules that promote fairness and inclusivity. For example, they may use proportional representation to ensure that all parties are represented in parliament, or they may allow international observers to monitor the election process.

• Stability: Regimes that seek to promote stability may design electoral rules that discourage extremist or fringe parties from gaining power. For example, they may require parties to have a minimum level of support before they can compete, or they may use a two-round system that ensures that only the most popular candidates advance to the second round.

• Consolidation: Regimes that seek to consolidate their power may design electoral rules that promote the development of a dominant party system. For example, they may use a first-past-the-post system that favors the largest parties, or they may provide financial incentives to parties that win a certain percentage of the vote.

4.3: Political Party Systems

• Political party systems: This refer to the ways in which political parties are organized and operate within a political system.

Types of Political Party Systems

• One-Party System

  • A one-party system is a political system in which only one political party is allowed to exist and hold power.

  • This type of system is often associated with authoritarian regimes and can limit political competition and representation.

• Two-Party System

  • A two-party system is a political system in which two major political parties dominate the political landscape.

  • This type of system is common in countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom.

  • Third parties may exist, but they typically have little chance of winning elections.

• Multi-Party System

  • A multi-party system is a political system in which multiple political parties compete for power and representation.

  • This type of system is common in many European countries, such as Germany and Italy.

  • Third parties may have a greater chance of winning elections and can play a significant role in coalition governments.

• Dominant-Party System

  • A dominant-party system is a political system in which one political party dominates the political landscape, but other parties are allowed to exist and compete.

  • This type of system is common in countries such as Mexico and Japan.

  • The dominant party may hold power for long periods of time, but other parties may have a chance to win elections.

Political Parties in Core Course Countries

• United Kingdom

  • Conservative Party: Center-right party, currently in power, supports free market economy and traditional values.

  • Labour Party: Center-left party, main opposition, supports social democracy and workers' rights.

  • Liberal Democrats: Centrist party, supports liberal policies such as individual rights and environmentalism.

  • Scottish National Party: Center-left party, advocates for Scottish independence and social democracy.

  • Democratic Unionist Party: Right-wing party, represents unionist and Protestant interests in Northern Ireland.

• Russia

  • United Russia: Center-right party, currently in power, supports strong presidential system and state intervention in economy.

  • Communist Party of the Russian Federation: Left-wing party, supports socialism and workers' rights.

  • Liberal Democratic Party of Russia: Right-wing party, supports nationalism and authoritarianism.

  • A Just Russia: Center-left party, advocates for social democracy and welfare state.

• China

  • Communist Party of China: Only legal party, supports socialism with Chinese characteristics and one-party rule.

  • Democratic Parties: Eight minor parties that are allowed to participate in the political process, but ultimately subordinate to the Communist Party.

• Iran

  • Islamic Republic Party: Right-wing party, supports Islamic theocracy and conservative values.

  • Reformist Party: Center-left party, advocates for political and social reforms within the framework of Islamic Republic.

  • Moderation and Development Party: Center-right party, supports economic liberalization and moderate social policies.

• Mexico

  • National Action Party: Center-right party, supports free market economy and conservative values.

  • Institutional Revolutionary Party: Center-left party, historically dominant, supports social democracy and state intervention in economy.

  • Party of the Democratic Revolution: Left-wing party, advocates for social justice and progressive policies.

• Nigeria

  • All Progressives Congress: Center-right party, currently in power, supports economic liberalization and anti-corruption measures.

  • People's Democratic Party: Center-left party, main opposition, supports social democracy and state intervention in economy.

  • All Progressives Grand Alliance: Regional party, represents interests of southeastern Nigeria.

4.4: Understanding the Role of Political Party Systems

Role of Political Party Systems

• Representation: Political parties represent the interests and ideologies of different groups of people. They provide a platform for citizens to express their views and participate in the political process.

• Electioneering: Political parties contest elections and mobilize voters to support their candidates. They play a key role in shaping public opinion and influencing electoral outcomes.

• Policy-making: Political parties develop policy proposals and advocate for their implementation. They provide a framework for debate and decision-making on key issues affecting the country.

• Accountability: Political parties hold elected officials accountable for their actions and decisions. They provide a mechanism for citizens to voice their concerns and hold their representatives to account.

• Stability: Political parties provide stability and continuity in the political system. They help to ensure that there is a peaceful transfer of power and that the government can function effectively.

Role of Political Party Systems in Core Course Countries

• United Kingdom (UK)

  • The UK has a two-party system dominated by the Conservative Party and the Labour Party.

  • The Conservative Party is center-right and supports free-market capitalism, while the Labour Party is center-left and supports social democracy.

  • Other parties such as the Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party (SNP), and Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) also play a significant role in UK politics.

• Russia

  • Russia has a dominant-party system with the United Russia party holding a majority of seats in the State Duma.

  • The Communist Party of the Russian Federation and the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia are the other major parties in Russia.

  • Opposition parties face significant challenges in Russia, including restrictions on political activity and media censorship.

• China

  • China has a one-party system dominated by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

  • The CCP controls all aspects of Chinese politics and society, and opposition parties are not allowed.

  • However, there are eight minor parties in China that are allowed to participate in the political process, but they have no real power.

• Iran

  • Iran has a theocratic system of government with ultimate authority resting with the Supreme Leader, who is not elected.

  • Political parties in Iran are divided into two main groups: reformists and conservatives.

  • The Guardian Council, a body of 12 Islamic jurists, has the power to vet candidates for elected office, which limits the role of political parties in Iran.

• Mexico

  • Mexico has a multi-party system with three major parties: the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the National Action Party (PAN), and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).

  • Other parties such as the Green Party and the Labor Party also play a role in Mexican politics.

  • The PRI dominated Mexican politics for most of the 20th century, but the PAN and PRD have gained significant support in recent years.

• Nigeria

  • Nigeria has a multi-party system with over 90 registered political parties.

  • The two major parties are the All Progressives Congress (APC) and the People's Democratic Party (PDP).

  • Other parties such as the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the Labour Party also play a role in Nigerian politics.

4.5: Impact of Social Movement and Interest Groups on Governments

Social Movements

• A social movement is a group of people who come together to promote or resist a social change.

• Social movements can be peaceful or violent, and they can be local or global.

• Social movements can have a significant impact on governments by influencing public opinion and policy decisions.

• Examples of Social Movements

  • Civil Rights Movement in the United States

  • Women's Suffrage Movement

  • Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa

  • Arab Spring Movement in the Middle East

Interest Groups

• Interest groups are organizations that seek to influence public policy on behalf of a particular interest or group.

• Interest groups can be formed by individuals, corporations, or other organizations.

• Interest groups can have a significant impact on governments by lobbying elected officials and influencing public opinion.

• Examples of Interest Groups

  • National Rifle Association (NRA)

  • American Medical Association (AMA)

  • Sierra Club (environmental group)

  • American Association of Retired Persons (AARP)

Impact on Governments

• Social movements and interest groups can have a significant impact on governments by influencing public opinion and policy decisions.

• Governments may respond to social movements and interest groups by passing laws or regulations that address the concerns of these groups.

• Social movements and interest groups can also influence elections by endorsing candidates and mobilizing voters.

• However, social movements and interest groups can also be divisive and polarizing, leading to political gridlock and social unrest.

Social Movement and Interest Groups on Core Course Countries

• United Kingdom (UK)

  • The UK has a long history of social movements and interest groups, including the suffragettes, trade unions, and environmental groups.

  • Interest groups have a significant influence on the UK government, with many groups having direct access to policymakers and the ability to shape policy.

  • Social movements have also had a significant impact on UK politics, with movements such as the anti-war movement and the Occupy movement influencing public opinion and government policy.

• Russia

  • Social movements and interest groups in Russia face significant challenges, including government repression and limited access to resources.

  • Despite these challenges, there are still active social movements and interest groups in Russia, such as environmental groups and human rights organizations.

  • However, these groups often face harassment and persecution from the government, limiting their ability to influence policy.

• China

  • Social movements and interest groups in China are tightly controlled by the government, with many groups facing censorship and repression.

  • However, there are still active interest groups in China, such as business associations and industry groups.

  • Social movements in China are rare, but there have been some notable examples, such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests.

• Iran

  • Social movements and interest groups in Iran face significant challenges, including government repression and limited access to resources.

  • Despite these challenges, there are still active social movements and interest groups in Iran, such as women's rights groups and environmental organizations.

  • However, these groups often face harassment and persecution from the government, limiting their ability to influence policy.

• Mexico

  • Mexico has a long history of social movements and interest groups, including labor unions and indigenous rights organizations.

  • Interest groups have a significant influence on Mexican politics, with many groups having direct access to policymakers and the ability to shape policy.

  • Social movements have also had a significant impact on Mexican politics, with movements such as the Zapatista movement and the Ayotzinapa protests influencing public opinion and government policy.

• Nigeria

  • Nigeria has a vibrant civil society, with active social movements and interest groups, such as labor unions and human rights organizations.

  • Interest groups have a significant influence on Nigerian politics, with many groups having direct access to policymakers and the ability to shape policy.

  • Social movements have also had a significant impact on Nigerian politics, with movements such as the Bring Back Our Girls campaign and the EndSARS protests influencing public opinion

4.6: Pluralist and Corporatist Interests in Government

Pluralist Interests

• Pluralism is a theory that suggests that power in society is distributed among various groups and interests.

• In pluralist democracies, interest groups compete for influence over government policies.

• Pluralist interests are diverse and represent a wide range of social, economic, and political issues.

• These interests are often organized into groups such as labor unions, business associations, and advocacy organizations.

• Pluralist interests are seen as a positive force in democracy, as they provide a means for citizens to participate in the political process and hold government accountable.

Corporatist Interests

• Corporatism is a theory that suggests that power in society is concentrated in a few large interest groups that work closely with government.

• In corporatist democracies, interest groups are organized into a few large associations that negotiate with the government over policy decisions.

• Corporatist interests are often associated with business and industry, and they tend to be more conservative in their political views.

• Critics of corporatism argue that it can lead to a lack of representation for minority interests and can result in policies that favor the wealthy and powerful.

Comparison

• Pluralist and corporatist interests represent two different approaches to interest group politics.

• Pluralism emphasizes the importance of diversity and competition among interest groups, while corporatism emphasizes the importance of cooperation and negotiation.

• Pluralism is often associated with more progressive political views, while corporatism is often associated with more conservative political views.

• Both approaches have their strengths and weaknesses, and the choice between them depends on the political and social context of a given society.